The Enlightenment is considered to be the stage of development of European culture at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Rationalism, intelligence, science - these three concepts began to come to the fore. The basis of the Enlightenment ideology is faith in man. The eighteenth century is a time of man's great hopes for himself and his capabilities, a time of faith in the human mind and the high purpose of man. The enlighteners were convinced that healthy fantasy, imagination, and feeling must be formed. Books began to appear in which writers wanted to put as much information as possible about the world around people, to give them an idea of ​​other countries and continents. Of course, one cannot help but recall such famous people as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau. A whole variety of genres, from the scientific encyclopedia to the educational novel, appeared during this period. In this regard, Voltaire said: “All genres are beautiful, except the boring.”

Voltaire(1694-1778)

Voltaire's creative legacy is enormous: fifty volumes of six hundred pages each. It was about him that Victor Hugo said that “this is not a person, this is an ERA.” Voltaire still has the fame of an outstanding scientist, philosopher, and poet. What can be found in Voltaire's Philosophical Letters? Principles of philosophy that are still relevant today: tolerance, the right to freely express one’s own thoughts. What about religion? This was also a hot topic. It turns out that the enlighteners, in particular Voltaire, did not reject the existence of God, but rejected the influence of God on the fate of man. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine the Great corresponded with Voltaire. After the death of the philosopher, she wanted to buy his library along with their correspondence - however, the letters were bought and subsequently published by Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, author of The Marriage of Figaro.

By the way, Voltaire’s working day lasted from 18 to 20 hours. At night he often got up, woke up his secretary and dictated to him, or wrote himself. He also drank up to 50 cups of coffee a day.

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712 – 1778)

Just like Voltaire, he is a French philosopher, one of the most influential thinkers of the 18th century, the ideological predecessor of the French Revolution. In his first works, Rousseau expressed the tenets of his worldview. The foundations of civil life, division of labor, property, state and laws are only the source of inequality, unhappiness and depravity of people. Based on the idea that man is naturally endowed with an inclination towards goodness, Rousseau believed that the main task of pedagogy is the development of the good inclinations endowed in man by nature. From this point of view, Rousseau rebelled against any violent methods in education, and especially against cluttering the child's mind with unnecessary knowledge. Rousseau's ideas influenced the leaders of the French Revolution, they are written into the American Constitution, his educational theories still make themselves felt indirectly in almost every school throughout the world, and his influence on literature continues to this day. Rousseau developed his political ideas in a number of works, the pinnacle of which is the treatise “On the Social Contract” published in 1762. “Man is born to be free, and yet he is in chains everywhere.” These words, which begin the first chapter of the treatise, went around the whole world.

By the way, Jean Jacques Rousseau was the author of a musical dictionary and wrote the comic opera “The Village Sorcerer,” which became the founder of French vaudeville operas and lasted on the French opera stage for more than 60 years. As a result of his conflict with the church and government (early 1760s, after the publication of the book “Emile, or On Education”), the suspicion initially characteristic of Rousseau acquired extremely painful forms. He saw conspiracies everywhere. It was his “Social Contract” that inspired the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution; Rousseau himself, paradoxically, was never a supporter of such radical measures.

Denis Diderot(1713-1784)

French philosopher-educator - foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Founder and editor of the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts. In the philosophical works of Denis Diderot, being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, he came out with an irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, and defended (based on sensationalism) materialist ideas. Diderot's literary works were written mainly in the tradition of the realistic everyday novel of the Enlightenment. If the bourgeoisie sought to destroy class barriers between itself and the privileged nobility, then Diderot destroyed class barriers in literary genres. From now on, the tragedy became more humanized. All classes could be represented in a dramatic work. At the same time, the rationalistic construction of characters gave way to a real depiction of living people. Like Voltaire, he did not trust the masses of the people, who, in his opinion, were incapable of sound judgment in “moral and political questions.” Diderot maintained friendly relations with Dmitry Golitsyn. As an art critic, he wrote annual reviews of art exhibitions - "Salons". And from 1773 to 1774, Diderot, at the invitation of Catherine II, traveled to Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Full name: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron La Brade et de Montesquieu. French writer, lawyer and philosopher, author of the novel “Persian Letters”, articles from the “Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts”, work “On the Spirit of Laws”, supporter of the naturalistic approach to the study of society. Developed the doctrine of separation of powers. Montesquieu led a simple solitary life and concentrated with full spiritual strength and deep seriousness on the task of an observer, a thinker and a seeker of norms. The post of President of the Parliament of Bordeaux, which went to Montesquieu in 1716, soon began to weigh heavily on him. In 1726 he resigned this position, but, as the owner of the castle of La Brede, he faithfully maintained the corporate beliefs of the parliamentary aristocracy.

He represented a type of French aristocrat, already rare at that time, who did not allow himself to be caught by the temptations of the court, and became a scientist in the spirit of noble independence. The great travels across Europe undertaken by Montesquieu in 1728-1731 were in the nature of serious research trips. Montesquieu actively visited literary salons and clubs and was acquainted with many writers, scientists, and diplomats. Among his interlocutors, for example, is the French researcher of controversial issues of international law Gabriel Mably.

England, France and Germany are the main active countries of European culture; they own the main achievements of the Enlightenment, but their contribution to culture is different in both significance and depth. They experienced real social upheavals and emerged from these upheavals with different results. But for all states, perhaps, the main pathos of the time was the desire to destroy feudalism. It was as if the entire previous path of development of history suddenly revealed its own laws, which intertwined with each other and required a fundamentally different view of them. Understanding time, its new goals, searching for ways to implement them, new and new attempts to understand the world as a system - all this is concentrated in a philosophy that is no less revolutionary than social life. Enlightenment as a direction of philosophical thought began to take shape in the last century in the discussion between sensualists and rationalists. Descartes, a representative of rationalism, argued that there are innate ideas that form the basis of scientific theories. The English philosopher objected to him John Locke(1632-1704) in his work “An Experience on the Human Mind,” where he assigned the main place in knowledge to sensory experience. It is experience, according to Locke, that writes its letters on a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) human mind. This thought of Locke then led to another: education, enlightenment - these are the ways to influence a person. “Man is a product of his environment,” this statement would become the main idea of ​​the French enlighteners, convinced that such an environment would be the kingdom of ideas, Reason, which should triumph in society.

Reason was supposed to free people from prejudices, especially religious ones. Locke argued that “faith cannot have the force of authority in the face of the clear and obvious precepts of reason” 1121, vol. 5, p. 7]. And after him, his followers up to Kant contrast reason with faith, and science and philosophy with religion. The French Enlightenment becomes predominantly atheistic. For example, a philosopher Paul Holbach(1723-1789) considers the entire universe as a product of matter, organic and inorganic, and life as “a set of movements characteristic of an organized being, and movement can only be a property of matter.” Voltaire was a supporter on this issue deism, that is, he recognized the creation of the world by God, but no longer connected all further development of the world with it, assuming that it proceeds according to the laws of the natural order. The German Enlightenment (Kant, then Hegel), not considering God the creator of the world, still did not exclude him from their philosophical reasoning. Kant connects the existence of God only with morality, and believes that God is not the cause of morality and morality, but on the contrary - morality itself presupposes the presence of faith, without which no morality is possible. Moreover, for Kant, the presence of God is an axiom of practical reason; it cannot be proven logically, with the help of science, therefore you only need to believe in God. Hegel made God the product of an absolute idea.

But the main character, the central link in the philosophy of the Enlightenment, was man. For the first time since the Renaissance, such importance is attached to it and for the first time in the history of culture, a person is considered so comprehensively. Diderot considers man to be the only center of the Universe, without whom everything earthly would lose meaning: “Man is the only point from which everything must come from and to which everything must return.” Perhaps this is why the encyclopedists and other thinkers considered philosophy the “science of happiness,” which led philosophers to consider human nature and to search for sources of happiness in social life.

Regarding the nature of man, there have long been two points of view: one assumed that man is evil incarnate, the other endowed man with good intentions until man invented inequality. German writer of the late 18th and early 19th centuries Friedrich Klinger in the novel “The Life of Faust, His Deeds and Death in Hell” (1791), through the lips of his hero, he asks: “I want to know the purpose of man, the reason for the existence of evil in the world. I want to know why the righteous man suffers and the wicked man is happy. I want to know why we must atone for a moment’s pleasure with years of pain and suffering.” And in another place: “Where is justice? Why were my talents and passions destined for abuse rather than for noble purposes? . The first trend in understanding man is clearly visible here. The second is the main pathos of Rousseau’s reasoning: “The first who attacked the idea by fencing a piece of land, saying: “this is mine” and found people simple-minded enough to believe it, was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars and murders, from how many disasters and horrors would the human race be saved by the one who, having pulled out the stakes and filled up the ditch, would have shouted to his neighbors: “Better not listen to this deceiver, you are lost if you are able to forget that the fruits of the earth belong to everyone.” , and the land - to no one!” . Rousseau, ahead of his time, believes that by nature people are equal before society. This is not the equality of human physical or mental abilities, but the equality of all before life. But, he argues further, the stronger can treat the weaker unfairly, depriving him of his freedom. A just society must create equal conditions for every person; it is precisely this society that will contribute to the education of the “natural person”.

For Enlightenment thinkers, starting with Locke, “the state of nature is a state of freedom, but not self-will; it is governed by the laws of nature, which everyone must obey: reason, which discovers these laws, teaches people that no one has the right to harm life, health, freedom, property of another." Rousseau said that man in his natural “naturalness” has the best features and qualities, he is not “spoiled” by the inequality that arises where rationality is lost, therefore only the return of man to his natural state can destroy unfreedom. He believed that this task could well be accomplished by a state based on Freedom, Equality, Fraternity, namely - republic, in the full sense of the word - res publica - the people's business. For Rousseau, the people are the guardian of the “natural state,” since they are closer to nature by the very nature of their lives, and the bearer of morality, which is more “natural” than reason. Morality as a natural principle (inherent in a person already by birth) can be improved in a person through education, and he considers nature to be the most suitable place for this, as opposed to the urban way of life, which is artificial and distorts any morality. (Rousseau, in his denial, considered art, especially theater, an empty pretense and denied it artistic significance).

Already in Rousseau's reasoning, the question of human nature is connected with the question of what role the environment plays as a source of human happiness. Many educators assumed that the main purposeful external influence on a person was education. For example, Herder had no doubt that “the purpose of our earthly existence is to cultivate humanity, and all the low needs of life only serve it and should lead to it.” Other authors connected the question of the environment that shapes a person with his position in the state. In his work “On the Social Contract” (1762), Rousseau wrote: “Man is born free, and yet he is everywhere in chains.” The problem formulated in this way was reflected in various ways in the works of enlighteners. The general criticism was of statehood, power and the absolutist form of government. F. Schiller will angrily say: “The building of the natural state is shaking, its rotten foundation is settling, and it seems that a physical possibility has appeared to place the law on the throne, to finally respect man as an end in itself and to make true liberty the basis of political union” (emphasis added). The idea of ​​law, a law that should make a person from a slave into an individual, was also voiced by Kant, who believed that law is the minimum of morality.

Along with ideas about a just state, law and its connection with morality, the problem of freedom occupies a huge place in the “Encyclopedia...” and in other works of enlighteners. There is not a single philosopher who would not touch on it in one form or another: “There is no word,” said Montesquieu, “that people understand so differently as the word “freedom.” Some consider it a privilege to have what tyrannical power gives them; others - for the right to choose the authorities to which they are obliged to obey; others understand by this freedom the right to bear arms and resort to violence; still others consider it a privilege to be governed by a man of their own nation or according to their own laws. ...And finally, everyone calls freedom the government that corresponds to his customs and inclinations. But freedom is the right to do everything that is permitted by law. And if any citizen can do what the laws prohibit, then there will be no more freedom, for others thereby have the same right.” Scottish poet Robert Burns(1759-1796) exclaimed with all the optimism of his youth:

Hello and honor to freedom.

Let her Mind protect her.

And let the devil take all the tyrannies

With all the tyrants at once!

In philosophical theory, freedom most often turned out to be either an alternative to necessity, or was (for Spinoza’s followers) associated with the knowledge of necessity, or acted as a state of consciousness. The attempt of the French Revolution to establish Liberty, Equality, Fraternity turned out to be unrealistic, since the ideas about the power of Reason were too exaggerated. Therefore, in the works of German enlighteners, the search for freedom in the creation of a new state gradually subsides. For example, Herder calls the state a “machine” that can only exist as an instrument of despotism and presupposes its subsequent destruction.

Having noticed the contrast between the “natural man” and a way of life that requires observance of external decency, noticing that the inner world of a person, his freedom is not correlated with external necessity, and statehood with the individual, educators are trying to find a way out of this contradiction. The search for such a way out is still connected with the ideals of Happiness and Reason, they are carried out in the name of humanism, and therefore seem extremely important. And each time this way out turns out to be very fuzzy, abstract, it is more like a utopia, hope, dream. Herder, who proudly rejected Kant's statement that man is an animal who needs a master, noted that man who needs a master is an animal. But he also cannot imagine ways to create a society where man will not be an animal. All that remains is to dream:

The horde of liars will leave this world,

A thief, a murderer and a vampire will drown.

Hypocrisy and oppression will disappear,

Evil will melt, madness will fall!

She will come, sacred time,

When full of truth and goodness,

Having established love and fidelity forever,

To the good, to the good of times, directing the run.

Man will build heaven on earth.

No one advanced beyond dreams of this kind in the 18th century; even the frantic Convention in France, which inscribed the slogans of Freedom on its banners, could not achieve this freedom: the ideas about it were too vague, it acted only as an area of ​​what was due or desired.

Man, as the main mystery of existence, has become the object of consideration for a new branch of philosophical knowledge - aesthetics. German scientist Alexander Baumgarten(1714-1762), relying on Leibniz’s ideas about the inner world of man, drew attention to the following. Leibniz believed that the inner world of a person includes three components: reason, will and feelings. Along with rational knowledge, which is studied by logic, Leibniz also identified intuitive knowledge. He included a person’s perception of the beauty of things, art, which gives a sensory idea of ​​the harmony of the world. Baumgarten separated sensory (intuitive) knowledge from rational knowledge and considered it as independent. He called the doctrine of sensory knowledge of the world aesthetics (Greek. aisteticos“sentient, sensual”), a science that acted as a philosophy of beauty. The connection of the new science with the main problem of the time - the problem of man - was expressed in the fact that freedom and happiness were presented as the result of aesthetic education. F. Schiller in “Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man” says that “beauty ennobles sensuality,” and comes to the famous conclusion: “Beauty will save the world.” He assumed that in order to achieve freedom, it is necessary to build a kingdom of freedom “within the person himself,” and only aesthetic education is able to lead a person out of a “close, suffocating life” into the world of freedom and dreams:

Enter into holy solitude,

In the world of the heart, alien to vanity!

Beauty blooms only in song,

And freedom is in the realm of dreams.

If Schiller sought the path to happiness in the aesthetic sphere, then Kant - in the moral sphere. Moral feeling for Kant is more specific than for Rousseau. Kant believes that it is not just a manifestation of the natural state, but must also be based on duty - a special moral necessity to act contrary to one’s desire, calculation, and moods. Fulfilling one's duty determines a person's freedom, making him independent; it is a condition for a person's personal dignity. The moral law “within us”, based on a sense of duty, Kant calls categorical imperative:“Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of everyone else, as an end, and never treat it only as a means.” Or: “Do this,” he wrote, “so that the maxim of your will can at the same time have the force of universal legislation.”

Dreams of a free and happy person, the education of a reasonable, perfect, humane and worthy person are the leading themes not only of philosophy, but also of art.

Fidchenko Anton

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the remarkable pages in the history of Western European cultures. The Enlighteners are the ideologists of the 18th century, philosophers and writers who criticized the feudal order. The Enlightenment people were convinced that it was the mind, ideas, and knowledge that ruled the world. They condemned despotism and ridiculed the prejudices of society. Faith in human intelligence, in his ability to rebuild the world on intelligent principles, encouraged them to disseminate scientific and natural knowledge and abandon the religious interpretation of phenomena.

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Topic: “The Age of Enlightenment” Completed by a student of grade 7-A of Municipal Educational Institution TSS No. 2 Anton Fidchenko

The essay The Age of Enlightenment is one of the remarkable pages in the history of Western European cultures. The Enlighteners are the ideologists of the 18th century, philosophers and writers who criticized the feudal order. The Enlightenment people were convinced that it was the mind, ideas, and knowledge that ruled the world. They condemned despotism and ridiculed the prejudices of society. Faith in human intelligence, in his ability to rebuild the world on intelligent principles, encouraged them to disseminate scientific and natural knowledge and abandon the religious interpretation of phenomena. The Enlighteners dreamed of a future kingdom of intelligence and justice, which seemed very close to them. Philosophers, writers, scientists believed that they were bringing people the light of a new truth. That is why they were called the Enlighteners, and the entire era - the Enlightenment. The uncrowned monarchs of Europe Swift, Defoe, Voltaire, Schiller, Goethe called on humanity to take smart actions, actions, and lifestyles. Diderot, for example, wanted to “depict the general picture of the efforts of the human mind in all spheres of knowledge and at all times.” Voltaire argued that state interests should stand above personal interests, that the mind and its laws prevail in man, that all life is explained from the standpoint of the mind. Man is a perfect being, which nature has endowed with various talents and abilities.

He himself must be responsible for his actions, and his actions must be free - without thoughts of retribution for good or punishment for possible mistakes. The ruler should lead not like a despot who recognizes only his own will, but like an “enlightened monarch,” that is, wisely and fairly, according to the laws. A new understanding of the meaning of life appears. It seemed to the enlighteners that the old relationships between people were simply unreasonable and unnatural. Both the elementary mind and nature itself, according to the enlighteners, suggest that all people are equal from birth. In the 18th century the idea of ​​the “natural man” became very popular. Enlighteners viewed the elimination of feudal relations (and the establishment of the bourgeois order) as a return to nature, as the revelation of normal, natural qualities in man. The “natural person,” the normal person, was contrasted with the nobleman, with his distorted idea of ​​himself and his rights. This view of man largely determined the artistic method of writers of the 18th century. Classic examples for enlightenment writers were the wonderful works of ancient Greek and Roman art. At the same time, it should be noted that the socio-political structure of the countries of that time did not correspond to intelligent concepts about normal relations between people, therefore critical themes and motives developed in the works of many writers.

Among the French enlightenment writers are the greatest: Voltaire (“Candide”), Denis Diderot (“The Nun”), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (“The New Heloise”), Auguste Caron Beaumarchais (“The Marriage of Figaro”). Voltaire, with great driving force, exposed the negative aspects of the old regime that hindered the development of the French bourgeoisie. And since this struggle met the interests of the people and was carried out by Voltaire with extraordinary passion and strength, the very name “Voltairian” became synonymous with the fighter for many years. In the story “Candide” Voltaire exposes the impudence, rudeness and violence of feudal tyrants. He protests against unjust wars that bring destruction and misfortune to the people. In chapter 17, the writer depicts the happy legendary country of Eldorado. This is a country led by an enlightened and just monarch. Its inhabitants maintain “simplicity and beneficence.” Everyone works, there are no judges and prisons, since there is no one to judge and punish. Voltaire ends the story with the words of Candide: “It is necessary to grow our garden,” thus promoting the idea of ​​creative work.

There is no consensus regarding the dating of this ideological era. Some historians attribute its beginning to the end of the 17th century, others to the middle of the 18th century. In the 17th century The foundations of rationalism were laid by Descartes in his work “Discourse on Method” (1637). The end of the Enlightenment is often associated with the death of Voltaire (1778) or with the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815). At the same time, there is an opinion about linking the boundaries of the Enlightenment era to two revolutions: the “Glorious Revolution” in England (1688) and the Great French Revolution (1789).

Denis Diderot

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Teacher requirements:
The assignment is focused on creative understanding of the problems of the first part of the lecture course and seminar classes.

It is carried out in the form of an essay, which is created by students within the framework of the problem field: “Man of the Enlightenment.” Students are given the opportunity to independently formulate (detail) a topic with the obligatory condition that it corresponds to the problem posed.

Completing this task contributes to the development of the most important professional competencies of the future history teacher - the ability to navigate scientific concepts, the ability to analyze material, and creatively comprehend the means of presenting it.

When completing the assignment, it should be taken into account that the assessment of an essay as an academic work reflects not only the identified level of knowledge, but also the author’s compliance with genre specifics. An essay is a short written work (up to 4-5 pages), combining free, subjective reasoning on the issue posed with elements of scientific analysis. The essay does not pretend to be an extended interpretation or a comprehensive disclosure of the problem posed, but rather resembles participation in a discussion or presentation. An essay is considered a creative work and cannot be either abstract or descriptive. It “balances” between scientificity, journalism and artistry. When writing an essay, questions are posed that require an analytical approach and a clear system of argumentation, but the course of thought should demonstrate the author’s original approach. When writing an essay, a scientific justification for the relevance and novelty, purpose and objectives of the topic is not required. However, some “introduction” of the reader into the topic is expected. To pose a problem in an essay, the “point of surprise” is often used - an unexpected move in revealing the topic, with the help of which you can surprise, confuse or intrigue the reader. Paradoxicality is one of the key genre features of an essay, but a clear author’s position is no less important. As a rule, in an essay, the author’s train of thought is supported by logical evidence and vivid quotes (quotes are used without bibliographical references), interesting facts are given, analogies and associations are selected. You can use “traps” to attract attention: a dubious quotation, poetic lines, an unusual fact, a visual image, etc. Essays that use means of artistic expression: metaphors, allegorical and parable images, symbols compare favorably. The final reflections are not formalized as a formal conclusion, but the text must have semantic completeness.

The minimum number of points is 4. The maximum number of points is 8.

From 5 to 7 points: the content corresponds to the conditions of the educational task and shows the author’s good familiarity with the concept of the Enlightenment view of the world and the patterns of social development, as well as with other historical concepts; the task was completed exactly in accordance with the requirements; the design fully complies with the requirements.

8 points: the content corresponds to the conditions of the educational task and shows that the author has not only deep knowledge on the topic, but also broad historical erudition; the task was completed exactly in accordance with the requirements; the author's reasoning is analytical and original; the design fully complies with the requirements.

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In the XVII-XVIII centuries, many different kinds of changes occurred in the development of science and industry: finally, society began to ascend the path of universal technical progress, and reason and knowledge were given a central place in the universal consciousness. These transformations led to the need to create a “practical philosophy” that would help humanity become masters of nature and turn it to serve people. But, as it is not difficult to guess, knowledge was necessary for the reconstruction of society and nature, as many 18th-century philosophers argued in their works. It was thanks to this policy, striving for universal mental development, that the 18th century began to be called the Age of Enlightenment.

The British were the first to enter the Age of Enlightenment. English philosophers (such as M. Tyndall, D. Locke, D. Toland) quickly tried to destroy the established religious philosophy and diligently tried to establish deism, which did not deny the existence of the Almighty, but said that after the creation of nature, God did not interfere with nature. Deism was considered an incredible breakthrough on the path to science.
In France, the Enlightenment was democratic in nature (while in England it was rather aristocratic). There was even a book created called “Encyclopedia, or an explanatory dictionary of sciences, arts and crafts,” which clearly introduced readers to the most important scientific breakthroughs and discoveries (it was compiled by the most famous French scientists and philosophers).

In Germany, the philosophy of the Enlightenment clearly presented a system of knowledge about the world and, in fact, scientifically explained the creation of the world. German scientists published textbooks that served as a guide for many European countries. The most famous German philosopher of the Enlightenment is considered to be H. Wolf.

Philosophers of the Enlightenment paid more attention to issues of a socio-political nature, in particular, legal universality. For example, Voltaire’s ideas that no one can deprive a person of life, freedom or property were considered significant; The works of D. Locke, which spoke about the equality of individual rights and “natural law,” gained enormous popularity. Legal universality, according to philosophers of the 18th century, presupposed a certain consistency between the interests of citizens and society. They assumed that this would provide an opportunity for the development of education. This statement ultimately determined the formation of the “philosophy of history” of the 18th century. Its most famous representatives were Condorcet (France) and Herder (Germany).

Condorcet saw the reason for the development of society in the activity of the mind, which seeks to understand and systematize everything around it as accurately as possible. The philosopher considered the movement towards truth and goodness to be the guides of social progress. He also attributes great importance to book printing, which reveals incredible opportunities for the dissemination of science. However, Condorcet believed that social inequality exists in modern society, although he said that it must be limited.

Herder viewed human history as a continuation of the history of nature. The philosopher associated social development with an increase in humanity, which he considered a natural quality (since it is also found in animals). The driving force behind this progress was the popularization of various sciences. Despotism for Herder was the main culprit of social regression. Herder, among other things, noted the important role of continuity in social development. And he associated this ideal of humanity with the achievement of a god-like person: kind, selfless, loving work and knowledge.

Thus, we can highlight several of the most important characteristic features of the philosophy of the Enlightenment:

A deep faith in science and its capabilities in understanding the world develops;

Deistic ideas about the world lead to such a philosophical doctrine as materialism;

The history of society is associated with scientific progress and the education of the masses.

The philosophy of the Enlightenment is interesting because it largely influenced the philosophy of the 19th century and its main movements. It can also be said that thanks to the Age of Enlightenment, modern people also highly appreciate the importance of reason and scientific discoveries, which have become the basis and main guideline for us. However, both in the 18th century and now, many are concerned about the fate of humanity, which can change greatly due to technological development.

Literature:

1) Ogurtsov A.P. Philosophy of science of the Enlightenment. - M.: Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1993. - 213 p.

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