Personality is based on her structure - communication and interaction of relatively stable components (sides) of the personality: abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions and motivation.
A person's abilities determine his success in various activities. A person's reactions to the world around them - other people, life circumstances, etc., depend on temperament. The character of a person determines his actions in relation to other people.
Volitional qualities characterize a person's desire to achieve their goals. Emotions and motivation are, respectively, the experiences of people and the motivation for activity and communication.
Most psychologists believe that a person is not born a person, but becomes. However, in modern psychology there is no unified theory of the formation and development of personality. For example, the biogenetic approach (S. Hall, Leontiev A. N. Activity "Consciousness. Personality ". M., 1982. Freud and others) considers the basis of personality development to be the biological processes of maturation of the organism, sociogenetic (E. Thorndike, B. Skinner, etc.) - the structure of society, methods of socialization, relationships with others, etc., psychogenetic (J. Piaget, J. Kelly and others). - without denying either biological or social factors, it brings to the fore the development of psychic phenomena themselves. It is more correct, apparently, to believe that a person is not just the results of biological maturation or a matrix of specific living conditions, but the subject of active interaction with the environment, in the process of which the individual gradually acquires (or does not acquire) personality traits.
A developed personality has a developed self-awareness. Subjectively, for an individual, a person acts as his I ("image of I", "I-concept"), a system of ideas about oneself, revealing itself in self-assessments, a sense of self-esteem, the level of claims. Correlation of the self-image with the real circumstances of the individual's life allows the individual to change his behavior and realize the goals of self-education.
Personality is in many ways a life-sustaining formation. The stability of a person lies in the consistency and predictability of her behavior, in the regularity of her actions. But it should be borne in mind that the behavior of the individual in certain situations is quite variable.
In those properties that were acquired, and not laid down from birth (temperament, inclinations), the personality is less stable, which allows it to adapt to various life circumstances, to changing social conditions. Modification of views, attitudes, value orientations, etc. in such conditions it is a positive personality trait, an indicator of its development. A typical example of this is the change in the value orientations of the individual in the modern period.
Let's move on to considering other aspects of the personality. In its most general form ability - these are individual psychological characteristics of a personality that ensure success in activity, in communication and ease of mastering them. Abilities cannot be reduced to the knowledge, skills and abilities of a person, but abilities ensure their rapid acquisition, fixation and effective practical application. Success in activity and communication is determined not by one, but by a system of different abilities, while they can be mutually compensated.
A person capable of many and different types of activity and communication has a common endowment, that is, the unity of common abilities, which determines the range of his intellectual capabilities, the level and originality of activity and communication.
The overwhelming majority of psychologists believe that inclinations are some genetically determined (innate) anatomical and physiological features of the nervous system, which constitute the individual-natural basis (prerequisite) for the formation and development of abilities. However, some of the scientists (for example, R.S. Nemov) believe that a person has two types of inclinations: congenital (natural) and acquired (social).
The anatomical and physiological basis of social abilities, when they become developed, are the so-called functional organs - intravital neuromuscular systems that ensure the functioning and improvement of the corresponding abilities.
Temperament - a set of individual characteristics that characterize the dynamic and emotional aspects of human behavior, his activities and communication. Only conditionally temperament can be attributed to the components of the personality, because its features, as a rule, are biologically determined and are innate. Temperament is closely related to character, and in an adult it is difficult to separate them.
Temperament can be divided into four most generalized types: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic. This division has a long history (Hippocrates, Galen, Kant, Pavlov, etc.), although there are other classifications of types of temperament (Kretschmer, Sheldon, Sego, etc.).
There are no good or bad temperaments. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. The dignity of a choleric person is the ability to concentrate significant efforts in a short period of time, and the disadvantage is that with prolonged work he does not always have enough endurance. A sanguine person, possessing a quick reaction and increased ability to work in the initial period of work, by the end of work reduces efficiency not only due to rapid fatigue, but also due to a drop in interest. The dignity of a phlegmatic person is the ability to work long and hard, but he is not able to quickly gather and concentrate his efforts. The melancholic is distinguished by great endurance, but slow entry into work, his efficiency is higher in the middle or at the end of work, and not at its beginning.
The type of temperament must be taken into account in specialties where work makes special demands on the dynamic and emotional qualities of a person.
In its most general form character can be defined as a system of stable personality traits, manifested in a person's relationship to himself, to people, to work performed, to leisure, etc.
In the character, a number of subsystems or properties (traits) can be distinguished, just expressing the different attitude of the individual to certain aspects of reality. The first subsystem contains features that are manifested in activity (initiative, efficiency, hard work, or, conversely, lack of initiative, laziness, etc.). The second subsystem includes personality traits that are manifested in a person's relationship with other people, i.e. in communication (tactfulness-tactlessness, politeness-rudeness, sensitivity-callousness, etc.). The third subsystem is made up of features that are manifested in a person's attitude to himself (self-criticism - overestimated conceit, modesty - arrogance, etc.). The fourth subsystem is the totality of a person's relationship to things (accuracy-carelessness, generosity-stinginess, etc.).
Consider a description of some types of characters of people, which does not claim to be complete and systematic.
Hyperthymic type - such people are characterized by extreme contact, talkativeness, severity of gestures, facial expressions. They are energetic, proactive, optimistic people. At the same time, they are frivolous, irritable, it is difficult to endure the conditions of strict discipline, forced loneliness.
Disty type. These people are characterized by low contact, reticence, a tendency to pessimism. They lead a secluded life, rarely conflict. They are serious, conscientious, devoted in friendship, but too passive and slow.
Cycloid type. They are characterized by frequent periodic mood swings. During the uplift, they behave according to the hyperthymic type, while the decline - according to the dysthymic type.
Pedantic type. These people are characterized by conscientiousness and accuracy, reliability in business, but at the same time they are able to harass others with excessive formalism and boringness.
Demonstrative type. They are artistic, courteous, their thinking and actions are extraordinary. They strive for leadership, they easily adapt to people. At the same time, such people are selfish, hypocritical, unscrupulous in their work, and vain.
Extroverted type. They are motivated and energized by the outside world. They do not like solitary reflections, they need the support and approval of people. They are sociable, have many friends. Easily suggestible, influenced. They readily have fun, are prone to rash acts.
Introverted type. They are focused on their inner world, so they have little contact, are prone to loneliness and thoughtfulness, and do not tolerate interference in their personal life. Restrained, rarely come into conflict. At the same time, they are quite stubborn, conservative, it is difficult for them to reorganize in time.
Sadomasochistic type. In an effort to eliminate the causes of their life failures, such people are prone to aggressive actions. Masochistic people try to take the blame upon themselves, and at the same time revel in self-criticism and self-flagellation, sign their own inferiority and helplessness. Sadistic people make people dependent on themselves, acquire unlimited power over them, inflict pain and suffering on them, while experiencing pleasure.
Conformist type.Such people almost never have either their own opinion or their own social position. They unquestioningly obey the circumstances, the requirements of the social group, quickly and easily change their beliefs. This is a type of conscious and unconscious opportunists.
Thinking type.These people trust more what is thought out, logically justified. They pursue the truth without much concern for justice. They love to bring everything to complete clarity. They are able to remain calm when those around them lose their composure.
Feeling type.People of this kind are distinguished by a heightened sensitivity to everything that pleases and that which saddens. They are altruistic, always put themselves in the place of another, with pleasure they provide help even to their own detriment. Everyone is taken to heart, they are reproached for excessive indecision.
It is useful to bear in mind that the complexity and diversity of the human personality does not even fit into this extensive typology. It would also be a mistake to underestimate the predisposition of each of us to any type or simultaneously several (joint with each other) types. Therefore, familiarization with the typology of characters allows you to make fuller use of your own strengths, neutralize (if possible) weaknesses, and also helps to "find the key" to other people, since it reveals the hidden mechanisms of human decisions and actions.
Will - conscious regulation by a person of his behavior (activity and communication), associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. This is a person's ability, which manifests itself in self-determination and self-regulation by him of his behavior and mental phenomena.
Currently, there is no unified theory of will in psychological science, although many scientists are trying to develop a holistic doctrine of will with its terminological certainty and unambiguity. Apparently, this situation with the study of will is associated with the struggle waged since the beginning of the 20th century between the reactive and active concepts of human behavior. For the first concept, the concept of will is practically unnecessary, because its supporters represent all human behavior as a person's reaction to external and internal stimuli. Proponents of the active concept of human behavior, which has recently become the leading one, understand human behavior as initially active, and the person himself endowed with the ability to consciously choose forms of behavior.
Consideration of the psychological interpretation of personality involves the interpretation of the phenomenon of its spiritual freedom... Psychologically, personal freedom is, first of all, freedom of will. It is defined in relation to two values: vital drives and social conditions of human life. Attractions (biological impulses) are transformed in him under the influence of his self-awareness, spiritual and moral coordinates of his personality. Moreover, a person is the only living being who at any moment can say “no” to his instincts, and who should not always say “yes” to them (M. Scheler).
However, freedom is only one side of a holistic phenomenon, the positive aspect of which is being responsible. Individual freedom can turn into simple arbitrariness if it is not experienced from the point of view of responsibility (V. Frankl).
Under emotions understand, on the one hand, a kind of expression of a person's subjective attitude to objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality in the form of direct experiences pleasant or unpleasant (emotions in the broad sense of the word), and on the other hand, only the reaction of man and animals to the effects of internal and external stimuli associated with satisfaction or dissatisfaction of biologically significant needs (emotions in the narrow sense of the word).
It should be noted that a number of psychological theories of emotion do not exist. All of them concern physiological and other related issues, since any emotional state is accompanied by numerous physiological changes in the body.
Evolutionary theory (Charles Darwin proceeds from the fact that emotions appeared in the process of evolution of living beings as adaptive (adaptive) mechanisms to the circumstances of life. According to the concept of W. James - K. Lange, who develops the evolutionary theory, organic changes are the root cause of emotions.
In a person, cognitions (knowledge) play no less role in the dynamics of emotions than organic and physical influences. Based on this, new concepts of emotion have been proposed.
Cognitive dissonance theory (L. Festinger) proceeds from the fact that positive emotional experiences arise when a person's expectations come true and cognitions are realized, that is, when the real results of behavior are in consonance (correspondence) with the intended ones. Negative emotions arise, function and intensify when there is a dissonance (discrepancy, discrepancy) between the expected and the coming results.
Essentially, cognitive is also information concept, proposed by the Russian physiologist academician P.V. Simonov, based on which the strength and quality of a person's emotion is ultimately determined by the strength of the need and the assessment of the ability to satisfy it in a given situation.
Emotions are closely related to personality, inseparable from it. Emotions primarily reflect the state, process and result of satisfying needs.
Emotionally, people as individuals differ from each other in emotional excitability, the duration and stability of the emerging emotional experiences, the dominance of sthenic or asthenic, positive or negative emotions, etc. But the main difference is in the strength and depth of feelings, in their content and objective reference. The system itself and the dynamics of typical emotions characterize a person as a person.
Emotionality is innate, but affects, and, moreover, feelings develop in the course of life, which means a person's personal development. Such development is associated: a) with the inclusion of new objects in the emotional sphere of a person; b) with an increase in the level of conscious volitional control and control of their feelings; c) with the gradual inclusion of higher moral values \u200b\u200b(conscience, duty, responsibility, decency, etc.) in the moral regulation.
Motivation- this is an impulse to perform a behavioral act, generated by a system of human needs and, to varying degrees, is realized or unconscious by him at all. In the process of performing behavioral acts, motives, being dynamic formations, can transform (change), which is possible at all phases of the act, and the behavioral act often ends not according to the initial, but according to the transformed motivation.
The term "motivation" in modern psychology denotes at least two mental phenomena: 1) a set of motives that cause the activity of the individual and determine it. activity, that is, a system of factors that determine behavior; 2) the process of education, the formation of motives, a characteristic of the process that stimulates and maintains behavioral activity at a certain level.
The emergence, duration and stability of behavior, its orientation and termination after achieving the goal, pre-tuning for future events, increasing efficiency, semantic integrity of a single behavioral act - everythingthis requires a motivational explanation.
Motivational phenomena, repeatedly repeating themselves, eventually become human personality traits. These features, first of all, include the above-mentioned motive for achieving success and the motive for avoiding failure, as well as a certain locus of control, self-esteem, and the level of aspirations.
Personality is also characterized by such motivational formations as the need for communication (affiliation), the motive for power, the motive for helping people (altruism) and aggressiveness. These are motives of great social importance, since they determine the attitude of the individual to people. Affiliation - the desire of a person to be in the company of other people, to establish emotionally positive good relationships with them. The antipode to the motive of affiliation is rejection motive, which manifests itself in the fear of being rejected, not accepted personally by familiar people. Motive authorities- the desire of a person to have power over other people, to dominate, manage and dispose of them. Altruism - the desire of a person to disinterestedly help people, the antipode is selfishness as a desire to satisfy selfish personal needs and interests, regardless of the needs and interests of other people and social groups. Aggressiveness - the desire of a person to cause physical, moral or property harm to other people, to cause them trouble. Along with the tendency of aggressiveness, a person also has a tendency to inhibit it, a motive for inhibiting aggressive actions associated with assessing their own such actions as unwanted and unpleasant, causing regret and remorse.
When asked what a person is, psychologists answer differently. The concept of "personality" usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a person, defining his actions that are significant for people. Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in connections and relationships that are social by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are of significant importance for himself and others. Along with the concept of "personality" in science, the term "individual", "individuality" is often used. The concept of "individual" includes both qualities that distinguish a given person from other people, and properties common to him and many other people. Individuality is the narrowest concept in terms of content. It contains only those individual and personal properties of a person, a combination of them that distinguishes this person from other people.
Characteristics of a personality can be given if one reveals its individual psychological characteristics, such as temperament, abilities, character. When we try to understand and explain why different people, by life circumstances, placed in the same or approximately the same conditions, achieve different successes, we turn to the concept of ability, believing that the difference in success can be quite satisfactorily explained by them. The same concept is used by us when we need to understand why some people learn knowledge, skills and abilities faster and better than others. Meanwhile, the data of psychological research and pedagogical experience indicate that sometimes a person who initially did not know how to do something and thus did not differ favorably from others, as a result of training, extremely quickly masters skills and abilities and soon overtakes everyone on the path to mastery. He has greater abilities than others. Abilities are something that is not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (ensures) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our Russian scientist B.M. Teplov. The concept of "ability", in his opinion, contains three ideas. “First, by abilities we mean individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Secondly, not all individual characteristics in general are called abilities, but only those that are related to the success of an activity or many activities. Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to those knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed in a given person. " Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, a person's abilities act as a certain possibility. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only an opportunity in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only if the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. will be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Ability is an opportunity, and the required level of skill in a particular business is reality. Musical abilities revealed in a child are in no way a guarantee that the child will be a musician. For this to happen, special training is required. Abilities are found only in activities that cannot be carried out without the presence of these abilities. You cannot talk about a person's ability to draw if you do not see his work. An ability that does not develop, which in practice a person ceases to use, is lost over time. The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person who is capable of many different types of activities.
It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are shared by humans and animals, especially the higher ones. These elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of hand movements, developed memory, perfect speech, and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's tendency to abstract theoretical thinking, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Abilities can be called the ability to convince others, to achieve mutual understanding, to influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it has long been considered a special kind of ability in social psychology. Until now, psychology has focused primarily on object-activity abilities, although interpersonal abilities are no less important for the psychological development of a person. Without mastering speech as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and human mental development would be simply impossible. A person's lack of such abilities would be an insurmountable obstacle precisely on the path of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.
The individual psychological characteristics of a person include the properties of temperament (they are innate), which have a significant impact on the formation of a person's character and behavior, sometimes determine his actions, his individuality. Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes and behavior. Dynamics is understood as the pace, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes. The idea and doctrine of temperament in their origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. In modern psychology, the classification of temperaments is used, which belongs to the German philosopher I. Kant. I. Kant divided human temperaments into two types: temperaments of feelings and temperaments of activity. In general, "only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic."
The sanguine temperament of activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears to be an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker. It quickly ignites, but it cools down just as quickly, it loses interest in what, quite recently, worried and attracted to itself. A sanguine person promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure enters into contacts with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. Strenuous mental or physical work quickly tires him.
The melancholic temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a difficult and tense inner life, attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially in control when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill the given promise, even if its fulfillment does not directly depend on himself.
Choleric temperament of activity characterizes a hot-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down, if they give in to him, go to a meeting. His movements are impetuous, but short-lived.
The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses a tendency towards inactivity rather than strenuous, active work. Such a person slowly gets into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of getting into work.
The properties of temperament exist and are manifested not by themselves, but in a person's actions in various socially significant situations. Temperament definitely influences the formation of his character, but the character itself expresses a person not so much as a physical, but as a spiritual being.
It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system. Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither entirely innate nor dependent on the environment. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate: activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability. The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by how much a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a particular object or its aspect. One person remembers, recalls, examines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another. The productivity of all these cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained during a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where in the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, imagine, solve more. You shouldn't confuse productivity with efficiency. Excitability, inhibition, and switchability characterize the rapidity of the onset, termination or switching of a cognitive process from one object to another, the transition from one action to another. For example, some people need more time than others to get involved in mental work or to switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember information or recall it faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.
In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various movements, than in someone who has this property of temperament weakly expressed.
Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as a common basis for many other personality traits, especially character. He, however, determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personality traits. Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsivity and anxiety depend on temperament. The combination of these properties creates an individual type of temperament. Those manifestations of temperament, which ultimately become a property of the individual, depends on training and education, on culture, customs, traditions, and much more. Temperament to some extent affects the development of a person's abilities, which include movements with such essential characteristics as pace, reaction speed, excitability and inhibition. First of all, these abilities, which include complex and accurate movements with a difficult trajectory and an uneven pace. These also include abilities associated with increased performance, resistance to interference, endurance, the need for prolonged concentration of attention.
Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of the psychological qualities of a person. However, with any temperament, it is possible to form qualities in a person that are unusual for this temperament. Psychological research and pedagogical practice show that temperament changes somewhat under the influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. It is known, for example, that A.P. Chekhov was a very balanced, modest and delicate person. But here's an interesting fact from his life. In one of the letters to Olga Knipper-Chekhova's wife, Anton Pavlovich makes such a valuable confession: "You write that you envy my character. I must tell you that by nature I am harsh, I am hot-tempered, etc., etc. But I I used to restrain myself, because it is not proper for a decent person to dissolve myself. In the old days I was doing the devil knows what. " It is interesting to note that some people, having learned the peculiarities of their temperament, deliberately develop certain methods themselves to master it. This was done, for example, by A.M. Gorky, who restrained the violent manifestations of his temperament. To do this, he deliberately switched to various side effects with objects. With people who expressed views opposite to him, A.M. Gorky tried to be impassive and calm.
Literally translated from Greek, character means an imprint .. Character is a set of stable personality traits that determine a person's attitude to people, to work performed. Character manifests itself in activity and communication (as well as temperament) and includes what gives a person's behavior a specific, characteristic shade (hence the name "character"). Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Temperament affects the form of manifestation of character, in a peculiar way coloring certain of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in ebullient activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. The choleric person works energetically, passionately, the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. A high level of abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inseparable connection with the team, a desire to work for its good, faith in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, and the ability to be critical of one's work. The flourishing of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not lose heart under the influence of failures, work in an organized manner, and show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as hard work, initiative, decisiveness, organization, perseverance, occurs in the same activity of the child, in which his abilities are also formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, industriousness as a character trait.
Chapter 5.
Personality and its manifestations
Personality ... what a person makes of himself, asserting his human life. He affirms it both in everyday affairs and communication, and in people to whom he transfers a part of himself ... A. N. Leontiev
The concept of personality and its structure
You may have noticed that in fact, on every page of this book, we have talked and will talk about personality ... We talked about the personality when, risking boredom the reader, we repeated in different ways the idea of \u200b\u200bthe integrity and actual indivisibility of the human psyche, and in the future - talk about how a person feels and perceives the world around him, how he remembers, thinks, fantasizes .. All cognitive processes with which we will get acquainted are concrete manifestations of the mental life of a person, and the history of the development of a child's psyche is the path from the beginning of formation to the formation of a personality. Now it's time to move on
ABOUT P R E D E L E N I E from the characteristics of individual manifestations to the holistic analysis. Individual, individuality - the mind of the personality. this is a concrete person, in everything. The very word "personality", as the originality of its physical, many other psychological and physiological, psychological concepts, is widely used in the geological and social qualities of everyday communication. When and properties. want to describe a person, they often talk about
him either as a person or as an individual, individuality. In psychology, these concepts are different.
Individual , individuality is a specific person , in all the originality of its physical and physiological , psychological and social qualities and properties .
But, generally speaking, not only people have individuality. Everyone knows how different pets are from each other - dogs, cats, cows: each has not only its own appearance, but also its own "temper". However, no one ever talks about the personality of a horse or even a very smart shepherd.
There is no doubt that all newborn babies are similar to each other only at first glance. In fact, each of them is already an individual. But not a person! Person becomes personality, and not born by it. Does everyone have to become? Or just a few? As the psychologist A. Asmolov says, “people are born, become a person, and defend individuality”. No wonder, perhaps, they say about one thing: “A real person!”, And about another: “No, this is not a person. So, neither this nor that. "
Interestingly, the word “personality” has experienced amazing adventures in history that seem to be still going on. Originally, the Latin word "persona" (person) meant a mask, a disguise. In ancient theater, the actor wore the mask that characterized the typical qualities of the character depicted. Then the mask seemed to have grown and began to denote the inner essence of the character himself. “Person” left the stage and stepped into life. In ancient Rome, "persona" already meant "a person before the law." At the same time, the slave, whose body and labor belonged to the master, could not be a person, that is, he was not recognized as a person.
In Russian, the word “personality” has long had an offensive connotation. In the academic dictionary of 1847, it was said that personality, first of all, “the relationship of one person to another. No person should be tolerant in the service ”; and, secondly, “a caustic comment on someone's account, an insult. Should not use personalities. " Now the following "definition" by A. Pushkin is also clear:
Other abuse, of course, indecency, You can't write: Such and such an old man, Goat with glasses, a shabby slanderer, And angry and mean: all this will be personality .
Even in L. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" you can read this description of the course of the stormy debate: "The further they went on, the more disputes flared up, reaching shouts and personalities." It is surprising that a completely different meaning of this word developed in parallel: “Do you know what your peculiarity depends on, your personality , what you are?" - AN Radishchev asked. This is how today's philosopher or psychologist might write. Nowadays, the word "personality" most often denotes a Personality - it is any human individuality in its social age, possessing consciousness. ties and relationships , but until now, in the heat of a heated debate, a warning may sound: "Colleagues, do not get personal!" In psychology, the concept of "personality" is used in two main meanings. L identity is any person with consciousness ... According to KK Platonov, a person is "a concrete person or subject of the transformation of the world on the basis of his knowledge, experience and attitude towards him." According to other psychologists, under the personality you need a ponyPersonality - a person, to achieve something different. a certain level Personality is a person who has reached mental development. a certain level of mental development .
This level, as the well-known psychologist L. I. Bozhovich pointed out, is characterized by the fact that in the process of self-knowledge a person begins to perceive and experience himself as a whole, different from other people and expressed in the concept of “I”. This level of mental development is also characterized by the presence of a person's own views and attitudes, their own moral requirements and assessments that make him relatively stable and independent of the influences of the environment that are alien to his own convictions.
A necessary characteristic of a person is her activity ... A person at this level of development is able to consciously influence the surrounding reality, change it for his own purposes, and also change himself for his own purposes. In other words, a person who is a person possesses, from the point of view of L.I.Bozhovich (and we are her), such a level of mental development that makes him able to control his behavior and activities, and to a certain extent his mental development.
Yes, here it is time for everyone to think: am I a person or still not, that is, do I have my own convictions, without referring to the fact that someone somehow influenced me in the wrong way and led me in the wrong direction. It is necessary to influence and lead oneself, to change oneself, to trim oneself to the ideal. If he is, of course, if you are ... a person.
But what about children, teenagers? After all, they say: "respect for the personality of the child." Contradiction? Only at first glance. A. N. Leont'ev believed that a person is really born twice. For the first time, probably, this happens in the period of the "age revolution", when a three-year-old demonstrator puts forward the famous slogan: "I myself!" In the second - when, in the words of A.N. Leont'ev, his conscious personality. I would like to think that everyone has it. In any case, we must strive for this.
What are the basic elements, blocks that the personality is built from? We have already noted that, according to L.I.Bozhovich, personality is based on focus - system of leading aspirations and motives of behavior. Other psychologists also emphasize the importance of orientation. S. L. Rubinshtein said that in order to understand personality, its structure, it is necessary to answer three main questions:
1. What does a person want, what are his needs, desires and aspirations?
2. What can a person do and what are his abilities, skills and abilities?
3. What are his temperament and character, individual characteristics?
But what is the structure of personality in the opinion of K.K. Platonov. Speaking at the conference, he figuratively presented his concept: he put his open palm on the edge of the chair and said: “Imagine that this is a personality structure consisting of four substructures. The first, lower, substructure is biopsychic properties - temperament, sex, age and other psychophysiological characteristics. The next substructure is the features of mental processes - attention, will, feelings, perception, thinking, memory. Then - the substructure of experience, which includes habits, skills, skills and knowledge. And finally (here the speaker's voice became solemn. He drew the audience's attention to the index finger) the substructure of direction: beliefs, worldview, ideals, aspirations, interests, desires. "
Stability and variability of personality
A person without personality? Perhaps the most vividly this image was revealed by the American science fiction writer R. Bradbury in the short story "The Martian" from the famous collection "The Martian Chronicles". This is a story about a creature devoid of its own personality, personal certainty and independence - about a Martian who changes depending on the desires of the person in whose sphere of influence he falls.
However, in order to demonstrate the behavior of a "person without personality", it is not at all necessary to be transferred to Mars. Unfortunately, there are not so few such people on our own planet, in our city and just next to us.
The writer V. Gusev has a story called "Excursion", the main character of which, Sasha, also constantly "transforms".
So, transformation first ... Sasha will have a conversation "with the accountant Zina - the trade union boss", who, as he knows, considers him "a slob and a squishy", "not a real man", "an unfortunate intellectual", although he is not devoid of caution, prudence and everyday practical ingenuity : "This one will not go too far, he will not blurt out too much ..."
"... Grasping the brass handle and opening the door, crossing the threshold, Sasha appears in the accounting department exactly the person he appears in Zina's imagination ..."
Second transformation ... Having crossed the threshold of the director's office, Sasha almost physically feels how he immediately becomes that cocky and rough ("youth, youth ..."), in words ready to be eternally nervous, excited, but in fact a workable, "brash" person, as Rostislav perceives him Ippolitovich. “He involuntarily felt that the director like and his independence, and his hidden respect, tactful distance in relation to his superiors, and almost involuntarily for himself, more and more entered the rhythm of both, more and more emphasized it in his posture, habits, although he stood, it would seem, motionless. .. "
Sasha, holding a long pointer, enters the hall where they gather to begin the survey, with that kind of elusive superiority over all the idly crowd around, which is inherent in almost all guides: he does the job, he knows, and the tourists must listen to him. It is his third reincarnation , during which Sasha manages to hide that he does not understand anything in painting, even for a moment sincerely believe in the spoken words, etc.
Of course, this kind of behavior characterizes an unsympathetic person. He is an opportunist, devoid of moral stability and firm convictions. But it would be a big mistake to think that a person is some kind of stone statue, over which neither years nor circumstances have power. The point is what exactly changes in a person, and what remains unchanged. N. Zabolotsky wrote:
How the world is changing! And how I am changing myself! Only one name I am called, In fact, what they call me - I am not alone. There are a lot of us. I'm alive.
Of course, a name alone is not enough to preserve what is called personal certainty, although it also matters.
If a person is a person, then even serious life storms are not able to change something important in him, some deep life attitudes and beliefs. Yuri Trifonov in the deeply psychological story "Another Life" guessed exactly this quality of the protagonist.
“... Failures from year to year finished him off, kicked out the strength from him, he bent, weakened, but some rod inside him remained intact - like a thin steel bar - bouncing, but did not break. And that was a disaster. He did not want to change in his core, and this meant that, although he suffered and suffered a lot from failures, he lost faith in himself, was carried away by the most absurd follies that made him think that his mind was clouded, he came to despair and tormented his poor heart, he still did not want to break what was inside him, so steel, invisible to anyone. "
What in some circumstances turns into trouble and life drama, in others becomes an example of inspiring fortitude and heroism. And the main thing here is the social significance of that general goal in the name of which a person builds his personality and paves his life path. A. Voznesensky wrote: “Fate, like a rocket, flies along a parabola. Usually - in the darkness and less often - along the rainbow. " The choice of this parabola is the main function of the personality.
In the book by A. N. Leontiev “Activity. Consciousness. Personality "there are wonderful lines about personality - a characteristic of" this higher unity of a person, changeable, just as changeable his life itself, and at the same time retaining its constancy ... After all, regardless of the experience accumulated by a person, from events that change his life position, finally , regardless of the physical changes taking place, he is like personality remains the same in the eyes of other people and for himself. "
Personality and Society. Social roles
A person always acts as a member of society, as a performer of certain social functions, or, as they say, social roles .
You've probably noticed by now that psychologists like analogies from the world of theater. This is not surprising: the theater is a model of life, where psychological situations are sharpened and freed from minor details. Each performance is a kind of psychological experiment. People of the theater do not remain in debt. For them, reality itself is sometimes a kind of performance, but for Shakespeare, for example:
The whole world is theater. In it women, men - all actors. They have their own exits, exits, and each plays more than one role ...
Personality, persona, as we have seen, has long since left the stage. Has the turn come to the role? In any case, in personality psychology and social psychology, this concept has taken a very honorable place. In social psychology, the concept of "role" turned out to be convenient for describing the behavior of an individual in its various social functions. Social role – this is an expression of the program of human actions worked out by the society in a certain social role is the given circumstances ... a program bothered by society In this sense, the social ma of a person's actions is to some extent determined by actual circumstances. It resembles the theater. First of all, by the fact that, having assumed a certain function, a person begins to act according to a given program, adhering to the principle “took up
gug, don't say you're not hefty. " This "predestination", depending on the nature of the activity, can be more or less rigid, fixed in official documents or enshrined only in custom, realized by a person or unconscious, but it always exists. And those around them clearly control the accuracy of the program. As a matter of fact, a role can be full only when there is someone with whom, in front of whom and for whom to perform it. It is impossible to be a husband without a wife, a son without a mother, a nephew without an uncle. These are family scenes duets. In the same way, one cannot be a boss without subordinates, a teacher without students, a leader without a leader, an actor without spectators. When Robinson Crusoe, after many years of loneliness, finally met a man, he immediately reproduced the usual distribution of social functions for an enterprising Englishman: “First of all, I announced to him that his name would be Friday, because on that day of the week I saved his life. Then I taught him to pronounce the word "lord" and made it clear that this is my name ... "
The social role is always “I” and yet not quite “I”. Rather, not all "I". Man is not limited to his social roles. Moreover, he is able to resist them if they contradict his idea of \u200b\u200bhimself. A social role can both help a person find himself in life, and be an obstacle on the path to self-realization.
The famous dramatic artist V. K. Papazyan complained that the actor has to play and experience so many other people's lives that there is no physical and spiritual strength left to "find himself in life." Create yourself? To create your own image according to your own script is not one of the main tasks of self-education? Or maybe the only one. People really build their own image. In cases where it is possible, they say "found myself", if not - "builds from itself."
It is important that in this "self-construction" the image to which a person aspires carries a certain moral content. Self-improvement is not an end in itself, but a means by which a person, having become better, will be more needed and needed by other people and society, and therefore by himself.
In the absence of such moral content, a person will, at best, "self-educate" for himself (a kind of narcissism) or even to the detriment of other people and society (if the antisocial image is chosen as a reference point). Genuine restructuring of the personality, its re-education under the influence of a new social position is a long and complex process. As a matter of fact, it was this method that was used in educational work by A.S. Makarenko and his followers: for example, a violator of discipline is placed in the position of being responsible for its observance.
The process of personality restructuring under the influence of a new social role can be traced with great artistic persuasiveness in the famous Italian film General Della Rovera. Genoa, 1944. The dark time of the fascist regime. In the hands of the Gestapo, the player and crook Bertone (his role is played by Vittorio de Sica) falls into the hands of the Gestapo, who profited from the misfortunes of his compatriots: he extorted money from the relatives of the arrested, promising to achieve mitigation of punishment and even the release of the latter, the transfer of parcels and letters allegedly with the help of his friends and accomplices from the number of Nazi soldiers and officers. Before the war, he was convicted eight times: for fraud, deception, drug dealing, and even bigamy. SS Colonel Müller promises Bertone life and a million in gold for him to play in prison the role of a major Resistance figure, General Della Rovera, who was killed when he landed on Italian territory. In the future, the colonel hopes to use the imaginary general as a "decoy duck" and use him to establish the identity of the imprisoned leader of the Resistance, whom no one knows by sight. Bertone quickly learns the external picture of the role. A rumor spreads through the prison cells of the general's appearance. Both political prisoners and wardens treat Burtone as a general, a courageous freedom fighter. One of the prisoners heroically dies before his eyes. Bertone is getting deeper and deeper into the role of a patriot; a genuine rebirth of personality gradually takes place. The former swindler and lover of easy money no longer only behaves as, in the opinion of others, an Italian general who hates the fascists should behave, but also dies as a hero, without giving away the leader of the Resistance, who has already become known to him ... what was the mask became the inner content of the personality.
Transformative power social expectations a person feels not only in direct interpersonal communication, when expectations come from specific people, so to speak, are personified. These expectations can be perceived as knowledge of what others around us want from us, not only close ones, but also “distant ones”, as the experience of hopes that are associated with our activities. Often, it is the desire to "justify hopes", "not to deceive expectations" that becomes a strong internal motive that helps to overcome difficulties and achieve the goal.
The transforming and activating influence of the accepted social role is used in a peculiar way in the experiments of the hypnologist V.L. Raikov to stimulate creative activity in a state of hypnosis.
The beginning artist was taught, for example, that he was Repin, the musician “became” Rachmaninov, and the artist was ordered to “become” Komissarzhevskaya.
Young people were inwardly liberated and much better than usual, they drew, played music and recited poetry.
The experience of enhancing chess creativity is also interesting. The ex-world champion, grandmaster M. Tal, was invited to the laboratory, who played six games with one of the subjects. The subject played three games in a normal state, three games in a state of hypnosis (he was inspired by the image of the outstanding chess player of the past P. Morphy). Tal won. After the session, he gave the following assessment of the subject's play: “Before hypnosis, I played with a person who could barely move the figures. In a state of hypnosis, a completely different person sat in front of me, expansive, energetic, brave, who played two levels better. "
Such experiments once again demonstrate the enormous hidden capabilities of man.
Personality and communication
At the end of the XIX century. a book by the French author E. Liebeau was published in translation into Russian under the promising title "How to recognize a person's character." Various tips have been given throughout this book, one of which requires serious discussion. Referring to the authority of the German philosopher A. Schopenhauer, the author recommends observing a person, so to speak, through a keyhole and at the same time when he is alone in a room. Only when alone with his thoughts does a person have the very expression that is characteristic of him and which, therefore, betrays his actual state of mind; only when a person is with himself, the folds on his face are not pulled up and are visible in all their sharpness. As soon as a person feels that they are looking at him, or speaks to someone, his characteristic expression disappears; the folds on his face are tightened, his eyes become nicer, kinder, and, in general, his entire physiognomy takes on a conventional expression corresponding to the given moment. If we manage to observe a person when he is alone with himself, then the judgment made about him is sometimes quite close to the truth.
The author cannot be blamed for the fact that he did not know the basic principles of social psychology, which will develop rapidly only in the next century. Social psychology studies , First of all , those changes , that occur to the human psyche under the influence of communication with other people , and , Secondly , those communities , within which this direct and indirect communication takes place: large and small groups , teams, etc. . d . IN communication situations a person really changes a lot: from facial expressions to views of the environment. As a matter of fact, itself human self , the inner content of the personality arises and is formed only in the process of communication with people around ... Already at the earliest stages of life, this formation is closely related to the position in which the child finds himself among those around him, and depends on his place in the group that is the microenvironment of his development.
At each new stage of life, a person finds himself in a new social situation, in a new microenvironment, in a new group. First, as we have seen, this is a family, then there is a kindergarten group, then a school class, a vocational school group, a student group, a production brigade, and finally a circle of pensioners. This, so to speak, is a longitudinal section of the life path of an individual. And now let's look at a cross-section, let's trace in which associations a person is located, including you, at a certain period of life.
Let's start again with the family of which you are a member; further, you are a student of such and such a class, such and such a school, a member of a school circle (or even several); perhaps you attend the sports section, and you are certainly an active member of the friendly company of “guys from our yard”. No wonder they say that a person's life is continuous walking in ... groups. These groups, despite the very significant differences, which we will talk about later, have a lot in common. First of all, in all such small associations (from two to 30–40 people) direct communication between members, face-to-face contact is possible. On this basis, such groups are called small were contact .
A contact group is not an arithmetic sum of individuals, where everyone is on their own, but a complex holistic formation that has its own internal structure, which depends primarily on the activities for which people have united, on its goals, tasks, methods of organization, etc. Let us compare, for example, some friendly company, on the one hand, and the crew of a spacecraft, a production team, or a school class, on the other. These groups are already different in origin. Friendly companies (such groups are called unofficial , unorganized) appear as if by themselves. In any case, no one creates them on purpose, no one fixes their composition, there are no internal regulations approved by anyone. In such a group, people unite voluntarily on the basis of common interests, inclinations, friendly sympathies. There is no designated leader, commander, or chief. More complex relationships bind people in official , organized groups , which are specially created by society to perform certain activities: educational, industrial, research, etc. The main in such groups are business relations, and the position of a person here is associated primarily with the contribution that he makes to the common cause. In the process of common activity, people enter among themselves and into personal relationships ... We must not forget that both systems of relations (business and personal) coexist in the same group, that these are relations of the same people, therefore such relations are inextricably linked, are in interaction. We all watch with excitement the work of astronauts in the cockpit of a spacecraft or in outer space. And they always admire not only the clear rhythm, coherence and professionalism of their activities, but also the warm, friendly relations between the "space brothers". Business and personal relationships are harmoniously combined here. Groups that have reached a high level of development of relationships are called collectives. Groups that have reached you It can be said that any high level of development of a related collective is a group, but not a group, a collective group is called a collective. What. to become a team, the group must have a number of qualities that are acquired gradually. Let's trace this process on the example of the life of the detachment in the summer camp. The initial stage - the guys were gathered in one room, introduced to each other, told about the daily routine, upcoming affairs, etc. We can say that the group has arisen, but, in the words of the psychologist A.N. Lutoshkin, it reminds "Sand placer" .
This state and the process of forming a team are figuratively described in his book "How to lead."
We often meet on our way sand placers ... The wind blows harder - it will blow the grains of sand to the sides. There are groups of guys very similar to such placers. It seems like everything is together, but if you look closely, each is on his own.
The next step is soft clay ... In a group that is at this level of development, there are already internal connections between the guys. But the guys themselves find it difficult to act without prompting.
But in the group, an asset stands out, the goals of the activity become common, in some cases it already acts as a real collective. This state - shimmering beacon , which does not burn constantly, but periodically throws out beams of light, as if saying: "I am here, I am ready to help." The emerging team is concerned with how to keep the right course. The desire to work together, to help each other, to be together prevails here. But desire is not everything. For real common affairs, constant burning is needed, and not single, even very bright, flashes. There is already someone to rely on, the “keepers” of the lighthouse are authoritative, those who support its burning are the organizers, the active. However, the guys do not always have enough strength to gather their will, show perseverance in achieving a common goal, and submit to collective requirements. Activity is manifested in bursts.
A new stage in the formation of the team - scarlet sail ... This is a symbol of striving forward, friendly fidelity, restlessness. In such a collective (a group at this level of development can already be considered a collective) they live and act according to the principle “one for all, all for one”.
Friendly relations and sincere interest in the affairs of each other and the entire team are combined with adherence to principles and mutual exactingness. The team is interested not only in their own affairs, but also in those events that occur in other teams. True, you still cannot say that here they are ready at any moment to come to the aid of other teams that need it. It happens that storms and bad weather break the rhythm of the work of the collective for some time, but character is forged in the struggle.
And finally - burning torch - a real collective, one that is not satisfied with its own well-being and, without waiting for requests and appeals, rushes to help, who disinterestedly seeks to benefit people, the whole society, raising a torch high above itself, illuminating the way for others. "
The development of a team is a very complex process that never proceeds spontaneously, without conscious purposeful work by both leaders and team members. By the way, the brief characteristics of the stages of this development given here can be of practical use to you.
We have already said that for the self-education of a person it is necessary self-knowledge ... In the same way, the team moves forward, realizing its strengths and weaknesses, discussing the prospects and plans of its activities, the relationships of the team members, etc. As a result of such a collective introspection, the guys, as experience has shown, are able to objectively establish the stage of development of their class as a team and to outline the landmarks on the way from the "sand deposit" to the "burning torch".
It should be remembered that in organized, official groups and collectives there is, as it were, a double distribution of functions: according to the staffing table - vertical (chief, deputy) and horizontal, which arises spontaneously ("the soul of society", "wit-self-taught", "grumbler", "Scapegoat", "individualist - my hut on the edge", etc.). These unsettled roles are almost always reproduced in any more or less permanent group, and those who get them remain in them as long as the given group exists. Others are already waiting and, as it were, demanding certain behavior from them.
And if the place allotted in this group does not suit the person, if it no longer corresponds to his changed views and aspirations? Then the classic three roads appear before him. If you follow the first one, you will lose your usual group, but you will find a new place. If you follow the second one, you will win a new position in your group. You will go on the third - you will lose both the group and your position. However, life provides much more opportunities than a fairy tale plot. A person simultaneously enters into several temporary and permanent groups and collectives, and in each cell he may have not quite coinciding positions, and sometimes completely different ones.
It has been established, for example, that often the higher the position of a teenager in the classroom, the lower it is in the company of friends - and vice versa. The "scapegoat" among his fellow workers enjoys the awe and fear of his household. Often a person changes companies, and sometimes jobs, precisely because he is not satisfied with the place he occupies here: “I did not feel like a person there!”
Often "walking in groups" is associated with searching his a group in which a person feels himself “a person in his place”. In social psychology, such groups are called reference .
It is best when the group to which a person really belongs, in which his main activity is carried out, is a reference for him. But it happens that a person lives and acts in a group that he does not consider his own, is drawn to another, possibly inaccessible. This situation can be a source of serious internal conflicts. Cause? Often it can be a mismatch in life values, focus this person and other members of the group. What is focus? More about this in the next chapter.
Self-examination Self-knowledge Self-education Session 5
Questions and tasks
1. Do you think that everyone is a person? Why?
2. How do personality stability and variability manifest themselves? Give examples.
3. Answer the question "Who am I?" twenty words. Now define in your list the types of social roles: official, related, interpersonal.
Self-knowledge tests
I. How sociable are you? Timid? Contact?
Answer the questions below “yes” or “no”.
1. Are you making an effort to get along with people you don't like?
2. Do you prefer a bustling, busy resort to a quiet and peaceful vacation spot? 3. Do you like going to parties, discos and noisy bars? 4. On vacation or traveling, do you easily make new friends? 5. Are you always glad to see your friends if they suddenly dropped in to you? 6. Have you ever been the first to talk to a stranger on a train? 7. Do you like to organize parties, invite guests? 8. Do you have many friends and acquaintances? 9. Do you prefer noisy and lively evenings to quiet evenings spent at home?
10. Do you like games at parties?
11. Do you know most of your neighbors by name?
12. Do you enjoy playing games more than winning?
13. Do you prefer to play with people over slot machines?
14. Do you like helping people?
15. You are visiting. The hostess serves a dish that you think is terrible. Will you eat it?
16. Do you send Merry Christmas (or New Years) greetings to people you don't really like?
17. Have you ever been called “the soul of the party”?
18. Do you like meeting new people?
19. Do you feel confident when you walk into a room with people you hardly know any of?
20. Do you love children?
21. Do you prefer writing letters rather than making phone calls?
22. Do you find new friends easily?
23. Do you ever pretend that you are not at home if you see unwanted visitors approaching?
24. Do large companies often stay in your house?
25. Are you worried about what others think of you? Now count the points. For all questions except 21 and 23, each positive answer brings one point, and a negative one - 0. If you answered negatively to questions 21 and 23, you can add yourself one more point for each question.
If you typed from 16 to 25 points then you are a really sociable person. You love people, you love being with people, and you’re probably the happiest when you’re in company.
If you typed from 8 to 16 points , then you like to be with people, but you are calm about violent parties. Your patience is not unlimited, and you are probably quite happy if you are spending an evening with one or two close friends, rather than going where there are many people. And if you find yourself on your own in the evening, then you can do just fine with that.
If you typed 7 points or less then you seem to love being alone. Chances are, you will snuggle up with a good book, sit down to watch TV or do something, rather than go out and have fun with friends. You are independent and enjoy being alone.
II. Are you communicative?
For each of these 16 questions, you can answer “yes”, “sometimes” or “no”.
1. You have an ordinary business meeting. Does her expectation unsettle you?
2. Do you postpone the visit to the doctor until it becomes unbearable?
Personality and its individual psychological characteristics.
THEMATIC PLAN
The concept of personality in psychology. Individual personality traits. Personality as a systemic (social) quality. Man as a subject of social and labor activity. Personality and individuality.
Personality structure. Characteristics of two-factor personality theories. Development of ideas about the structure of personality in Russian psychology. Intraindividual (intraindividual) personality subsystem. Interindividual (interindividual) personality subsystem. Meta-individual (supra-individual) personality subsystem.
Personality orientation. Personality setting concept. Interests. Difference of interests in content. Difference of interests based on purpose. Difference of interests in breadth. Difference of interests according to the degree of their stability. Beliefs.
Self-awareness of the individual. Discovery of "I". The image of "I". Self-esteem. The level of personality claims. Psychological protection of the individual.
Personal development. Personal development and mental development. Personal development in a group. Age periodization of personality development.
Individual personality traits. Definition of temperament. History of ideas about temperament. Properties of the nervous system. Types of temperaments. Character The structure of character. Personality traits and relationships. Abilities. Qualitative characteristics of abilities. A quantitative characteristic of abilities. Inclinations as natural prerequisites for abilities. General and special abilities.
THE CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY IN PSYCHOLOGISTS.
In the world of living beings, only a person can be called a person. Having emerged from the animal world thanks to labor and developing in society, carrying out joint activities with other people and communicating in them, he becomes a subject of knowledge and active transformation of the material world, society and himself, that is, a personality.
In the human embryo, the genes contain natural prerequisites for the development of proper human characteristics and qualities. The configuration of the body of a newborn assumes the possibility of walking upright, the structure of the brain provides the opportunity for the development of intelligence, the structure of the hand - the prospect of using tools, etc. This is how the baby differs from the baby animal, that is, according to the sum of its capabilities, it is a man. All this determines the baby's belonging to the human race, which is reflected in the concept of an individual. That is, in the concept individual man is embodied as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo Sapiens. AN Leontiev attributed physical constitution, type of nervous system, temperament, dynamic forces of biological needs, affectivity and natural inclinations to individual properties.
The most complete general scheme of individual properties is described by B.G. Ananyev, who divided them into two large classes: "individual-typical properties" and "age-sex properties". Individual-typical properties, in turn, are divided into three groups: individual characteristics associated with the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres (the left hemisphere - the predominance of rationality, the right - emotionality, respectively, thinkers and artists, according to I.P. Pavlov); constitutional features (physique and biochemical properties of the individual); neurodynamic properties of a person. The two classes of individual properties indicated above in the school of B.G. Ananyev are called primary and they believe that they determine the dynamics of such secondary individual formations as psychophysiological functions and organic needs. By integrating, individual properties are ultimately embodied in temperament and inclinations.
Primary individual-typical properties are sometimes called neurodynamic individual properties. Secondary properties, as well as temperament and inclinations refer to the psychodynamic properties of a person. In a narrower sense, the term "psychodynamic properties" refers only to temperament.
Born as an individual, a child gradually assimilates (translates from the external plane into the internal or internalizes) what society offers him, the relationships and connections that adults enter during their communication and activities. Even while developing in society, he one way or another takes possession of some part of these relations, the totality and interweaving of which form his personality.
AN Leontiev, separating the concept of personality and individual, wrote: “Personality № individual; this is a special quality that is acquired by the individual in society, in the totality of relations that are social in nature, in which the individual is involved: the essence of the personality in the "ether" (Marx) of these relations ... the personality is a systemic and therefore "supersensible" quality, although the bearer of this quality is a completely sensual, bodily individual with all his innate and acquired properties. "
Based on this, personality in psychology, they call the social quality acquired by the individual in objective activity and communication and embodying the measure of the representation of social relations in the individual.
This social quality is not acquired immediately. Adults, involving a child in their relationships, initially make him the object of their activity. However, further, gradually mastering the composition of the activity proposed to the child as leading for his development, he becomes the subject of these relationships.
Thus, the main difference between personality traits is that they characterize a person as a subject of social labor activity.
However, any mental property is necessary in order to be a subject of activity. Human activity is determined not only by personality traits, but also by the peculiarities of mental processes - sensory sensitivity, observation, the speed of imprinting, saving and reproducing, ingenuity, etc. Mental activityAs you know, according to its biological role there is an active adaptive activity. Therefore, there is no such mental property that would not characterize a person as a subject of activity. Under mentalthe same personality traitsnot all these properties are understood, but those of them that are not only necessary, but also sufficient to characterize a person as a subject of social labor activity. Necessary properties are those without which it is impossible to be a subject of activity, or which significantly affect the nature of vigorous activity. For example, observation, ingenuity, excitability, although they affect the nature of social labor activity, are in themselves insufficient to determine the direction and content of social labor activity. In contrast to them, other mental properties, such as the orientation of the personality, its character and abilities, are not only necessary, but also sufficient to determine the direction and content of social labor activity.
Since personality traits characterize a person as a subject of social labor activity, they are manifested only in such actions and deeds that have social significance. This is their difference from all other mental properties, such as, for example, the qualitative features of mental processes or motives and mental states that can manifest themselves in any actions or even movements. It follows from this that the experimental study of personality is possible only when, under experimental conditions, we can induce such actions that are perceived by the subject as socially significant.
A person carries out social and labor activities in objective conditions. This determines the typicality of its character for a given historical era, social system, social class, profession, etc.
In the same way, the mental properties of a person, which characterize a person as a subject of social labor activity, are distinguished by their social typicality. The brightness and distinctness of the social typicality of personality traits increases with its level. So, an outstanding personality embodies a certain ideal of a social type.
In addition to social typicality, personality traits also have originality, individual characteristics that distinguish one person from another. "Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc." ...
Endopsychic manifestations exopsychic manifestations
Let us give an example of a study in which the formation of personality traits of people of small stature (80-130 cm) was studied. In addition to short stature, these people did not have any other pathological abnormalities. All of them showed significant similarities in some of their individual properties. person from another. "Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc." ...
One of the important questions of psychology is the question of the relationship between biological and social principles in the structure of a person's personality.
Theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person's personality, formed under the influence of two factors - biological and social, occupy a significant place in personality psychology. For example, A.F. Lazursky (1924) put forward the idea that a person's personality breaks up into an endopsychic and exopsychic organization. Endopsychic manifestations express the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if the internal mechanism of the human personality, determined by the neuropsychic organization of a person. Lazursky refers to the endopsychic the whole "set of such basic mental (psychophysiological) functions or abilities, such as receptivity, memory, attention, combining activities (thinking and imagination), affective excitability, the ability to volitional effort, impulsivity or deliberation of volitional acts, speed, strength and abundance of movements, etc. Content exopsychic manifestations constitutes "the relationship of the individual to external objects, to the environment, and the concept of" environment "or" objects "is taken in the broadest sense, in which it embraces the entire sphere of that which opposes the personality, and to which the personality can in one way or another relate; this includes nature, and material things, and other people, and social groups, and spiritual goods - science, art, religion - and even the mental life of a person himself, since the latter can also be the object of a certain attitude on the part of the personality ”(A.F. Lazursky, 1924). “Endopsychics” has a natural basis and is biologically conditioned, exopsychics, on the contrary, is determined by a social factor.
Most Western theories of personality proceed from the scheme of determination of personality development under the influence of two factors - the environment and heredity. The two-factor model is taken as a basis for the structure of personality in Freud's psychoanalysis, A. Adler's individual psychology, K. Jung's analytical psychology, E. Fromm's ego-psychology, A. Maslow's humanistic psychology, behaviorism and many other theories. Modern multifactorial theories of personality (R. Cattell) ultimately reduce the structure of the personality to the projections of all the same basic factors - biological and social.
In modern domestic psychology, an activity approach is developing, within which researchers (A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, B.G. Ananiev, A.V. Petrovsky, A.G. Asmolov, etc.) build their own theories of personality ... In the mainstream of this trend, a person's personality is considered both a product and a subject of the historical process. The biological properties of a person are considered in it as "impersonal" prerequisites for the development of personality (A.G. Asmolov, A.V. Petrovsky, 1993), which cannot preserve them as a structure, adjacent and equal to the social substructure. The natural prerequisites for the development of an individual, his endocrine and nervous systems, bodily organization, the advantages and defects of his physical makeup very intensively influence the formation of his individual psychological characteristics. However, the biological, entering the personality of a person, is transformed, becoming cultural, social.
Let us give an example of a study that studied the formation of personality traits in people of small stature (80-130 cm). In addition to short stature, these people did not have any other pathological abnormalities. All of them showed significant similarities in some of their individual properties. a person's personality is not reduced to its representation in a bodily subject, but continues in other people, then with the death of an individual, the personality does not "completely" die. This is evidenced by the words of A.S. Pushkin: "No, all of me will not die ... as long as at least one drink lives in the sublunary world." The words "he lives in us after death" have neither mystical nor metaphorical meaning. They only state the fact of the destruction of an integral psychological structure while maintaining one of its links.
Probably, if we were able to record the significant changes that a given individual made with his real objective activity and communication in other individuals, then we would receive the most complete characterization of him precisely as a person. An individual can reach the level of a historical personality in a certain socio-historical situation only if these changes affect a sufficiently wide range of people, having received an assessment not only of contemporaries, but also of history, which has the ability to more accurately weigh these personal contributions, which ultimately turn out to be contributions to public practice.
The method of reflected subjectivity makes it possible to experimentally confirm the fact of personalization, which has been shown in a large number of studies.
A.V. Petrovsky offers an example of one of them. Schoolchildren were asked to evaluate the moral, strong-willed, mental and other qualities of an unfamiliar peer from a photograph. Since the subjects did not know the student depicted in the photograph, and the facial features do not provide sufficient information for conclusions, the estimates obtained turned out to be amorphous and uncertain. He was not considered smart, but they did not claim that he was stupid, etc. In the second series of experiments, simultaneously with the presentation of a photo of another student, a phonogram was turned on, on which the teacher's voice was recorded. The content of what he said, firstly, was not captured by the subjects, and secondly, it had nothing to do with the task of assessing the portrait. Meanwhile, the voice of one teacher leads to a sharp polarization of assessments - a stranger is assessed as stupid, evil, cunning, etc. or, on the contrary, as intelligent, kind, simple-minded, etc., while the voice of the other leaves the assessments as amorphous as they were in the first experimental series. The experiment shows that the first teacher is more personally presented, personalized in his students.
Thus, the structure of personality includes three subsystems: 1) individuality of the personality; 2) its representation in the system of interpersonal relations; 3) imprinting personality in other people, its “contribution” to them. Each of these components is organically woven into the overall structure of the personality, forming its unity and integrity.
Using the example of such an important characteristic as authority, we will show the unity of the consideration of the personality in all its substructures.
Authority is formed in the system of interindividual relations and, depending on the level of development of the group, manifests itself in some cases as tough authoritarianism, the exercise of the right of the strong, as "the authority of power", and in other, highly developed groups - as a democratic "power of authority", the personal acts as a group , group as personal (intraindividual subsystem of personality). Within the framework of the meta-individual subsystem of personality, authority is the recognition of an individual's right to make meaningful decisions in significant circumstances, the result of the contribution he made by his activity to their personal meanings. In underdeveloped groups - this is a consequence of the conformity of its members, in groups of the collective level - the result of self-determination. Thus, authority is the ideal representation of the subject, first of all, in others (he may not know about the degree of his authority) and only proceeding from this in the subject itself. Finally, in the intraindividual “space” of the personality, it is a complex of the subject's psychological qualities: in one case, self-will, cruelty, overestimated self-esteem, intolerance of criticism, in the other, adherence to principles, high intelligence, benevolence, reasonable exactingness, etc. (intraindividual subsystem of personality).
So, in order to understand a personality, it is necessary to consider it in the system of actual relations with the people around it, and not as an isolated molecule formed by a rigid combination of atoms of individual qualities. It is also necessary to study the groups that this person belongs to, in which he acts and communicates, produces and accepts "contributions", transforming the intellectual and emotional sphere of other people and, in turn, undergoing changes, accepting "contributions" from them. The focus of the psychologist should be on the activity of the individual and the nature of its socially significant orientation.
PERSONAL DIRECTION.
A person needs the world around him, is connected with it and depends on it. To maintain life, he needs things and products; for the continuation of himself and his kind, he needs another person. Pointing to a person's need for objects and objects of the external world, we are talking about his needs.
The dependence of a person on his needs and interests gives rise to his focus on certain objects. In the absence of an object of need or interest, a person arises some tension, anxiety, from which he seeks to free himself. As a result of this, initially, for the most part, an undefined dynamic tendency arises, which, as the point of this direction is drawn, turns into an aspiration.
In this way, " problem focus- this is primarily the question of dynamic tendencies, which determine human activity as motives, themselves, in turn, determined by its goals and objectives ”.
Directionality combines two closely interrelated moments: a) subject content, since directionality is always associated with a specific subject, and b) the tension arising in this case.
As a separate structure, the attitude stands out from the trend. Psychological attitude- it is an unconscious readiness to act in a certain way, which leads to the construction or change of the type and nature of behavior, perception and communication.
Installation can be reflected in any area of \u200b\u200bthe psyche. So, in the motor sphere, it is a working posture that adapts the individual to certain movements, their character or method. One of the types of motor adaptations is the sensory setting, which prepares the body or organ for the best perception.
The attitude of the individual in a broader sense indicates a selective attitude towards something significant for the individual and adaptation to certain activities of not a separate organ, but of the individual as a whole.
As a position of a person, an attitude is formed in the course of its development and in the process of activity it is constantly rebuilt, including a whole range of components, ranging from elementary needs and drives and ending with the level of the personality's worldview. Expressing the orientation of the personality, the attitude gives rise to interactions and interpenetration of various internal tendencies, which in turn are determined by the attitude. Attitude plays an essential role in all personality activities. The presence of one or another setting changes the subject content of the subject's perception, which affects the redistribution of the significance of various moments, the placement of accents and intonations, the highlighting of essential components, etc.
An experiment was conducted by two Canadian psychologists to demonstrate the effect of the set in a college setting. Initially, psychologists examined all students. They were supposed to determine the degree of mental giftedness of each. However, the researchers did not really set such a task for themselves, and the final results of the survey were not taken into account in further work. Meanwhile, college teachers were told the fictitious results of determining the giftedness of young people who had just entered college and hitherto unknown to them. The researchers randomly divided all students into three subgroups. With regard to the first subgroup, the college teachers were given information that it consists entirely of highly intelligent young people. The second subgroup was characterized as having the lowest results. The third was reported as average in mental giftedness. Then all the students were assigned to different study groups, but they were already provided with the corresponding "labels", and those who were to teach them knew and remembered them well.
By the end of the year, the students' academic progress became clear. The first subgroup pleased the teachers with the results; the students in the second subgroup did poorly. The third subgroup did not stand out in anything special - in it, the successful and the non-successful were distributed fairly evenly, as in the entire college.
What conclusion could be drawn?
There was every reason to believe that the teachers, under the influence of psychological "examination" (recall that its true results remained unknown to them), developed an attitude: positive - towards representatives of the first subgroup; negative - to the students of the second subgroup, and they obviously took some steps in order to justify this attitude of theirs. Their bias has been beneficial for some and detrimental to others. The experiment is cruel (the most important ethical principle has been violated, which is equally significant for both experimental psychologists and doctors: "Do no harm!"), But nevertheless very indicative.
Everyone needs to be aware of the role that the psychological attitude plays in the emergence of possible subjectivism of assessments. It should be understood that although the attitude operates at the level of the unconscious, it is formed in many respects quite consciously. This is the result of an uncritical attitude to any, often random, unverified information that we receive from sources, often very dubious. This is the result of blind faith, not rational analysis.
Thus, bias, which is the essence of attitudes, is either the result of hasty, insufficiently substantiated conclusions from personal experience, or it is the result of uncritical assimilation of stereotypes of thinking - standardized judgments adopted in the community to which the individual belongs.
Psychological research has identified three components (substructures) in the structure of the attitude. Cognitive(cognitive) substructure there is an image of what a person is ready to know and perceive; emotional-evaluative substructure there is a complex of likes and dislikes towards the object of the installation; behavioral substructure- the readiness to act in a certain way in relation to the object of installation, to carry out volitional efforts.
Interests.As an orientation of thoughts, interest is fundamentally different from desires, in which the need is initially reflected. Interest is expressed in the focus of attention; need - in drives, desires, in will. "The need evokes a desire in a sense to possess an object, interest - to get acquainted with it." Based on this, interests can be characterized as the motives of the cultural, including cognitive, human activity.
Interest- the tendency or orientation of a person, consisting in the concentration of her thoughts on a certain subject, contributing to orientation in any area, acquaintance with new facts, a fuller and deeper reflection of reality.
The role of interests in the processes of activity is exceptionally great. Interests force a person to actively seek ways and means of satisfying his thirst for knowledge and understanding. Satisfaction of an interest that expresses the orientation of a person, as a rule, does not lead to its extinction, but internally rebuilding, enriching and deepening it, causes the emergence of new interests that meet a higher level of cognitive activity.
In this way, interests act as a constant incentive mechanism for learning.
Interests can be classified according to content, purpose, breadth and sustainability.
Difference of interests in contentidentifies the objects of cognitive needs and their real significance for the purposes of this activity and, more broadly, for the society to which the person belongs. Psychologically, it is essential what a person is primarily interested in and what is the social value of the object of his cognitive needs. One of the most important tasks of the school is the upbringing of serious and meaningful interests that would stimulate the active cognitive and work activity of a teenager or young man and would remain outside the school.
Difference of interests based on purposeidentifies immediate and indirect interests. Immediate interests are caused by the emotional attractiveness of a significant object (“I am interested in knowing, seeing, understanding,” the person says). Mediated interests arise when the real social meaning of something (for example, a doctrine) and its subjective significance for the individual coincide ("This is interesting to me, because it is in my interests!" - says in this case the person). In work and study, not everything has a direct emotional appeal. Therefore, it is so important to form indirect interests that play a leading role in the conscious organization of the labor process.
Interests vary in breadth. For some people, they can be concentrated in one area, for others, they are distributed among many objects of stable importance. The scattering of interests often acts as a negative personality trait, but it would be wrong to interpret the breadth of interests as a disadvantage. Favorable personal development, as observations show, presupposes a breadth, not a narrowness of interests.
Interests can also be subdivided according to the degree of their stability.The persistence of interest is expressed in the duration of the preservation of a relatively intense interest. Interests that most fully reveal the basic needs of the individual and therefore become essential features of his psychological makeup will be stable. Persistent interest is one of the evidences of the awakening abilities of a person and in this respect has a certain diagnostic value.
A certain instability of interests is an age-related feature of older students. Their interests often take on the character of passionate, but short-term hobbies, for example, at the same time mathematics, history, philosophy, psychology and logic. Taking on everything ardently, such guys, without delving deeply into the matter, light up with new interest. Interests in various occupations, flashing and fading in adolescence and adolescence, provide young people with an intense search for vocation and help the manifestation and discovery of abilities. The task of teachers is not, of course, to force the young man to do only the business that initially interested him, but to deepen and expand his interests, make them effective, turn them into a desire, into a tendency to engage in activities that have become the center of his interests. ...
Interests are an important aspect of motivating an individual's activity, but not the only one. Beliefs are an essential motive for behavior.
Beliefs- is a system of personality motives that induce her to act in accordance with her views, principles, worldview. The content of needs, acting in the form of beliefs, is knowledge about the surrounding world of nature and society, their certain understanding. When this knowledge forms an ordered and internally organized system of views (philosophical, aesthetic, ethical, natural science, etc.), then they can be considered as a worldview.
The evolution of beliefs refers primarily to their content side. In them, more and more features of the worldview of the individual appear. Thoughts and ideas, the principles that a person expresses, are determined by the entire content of his life, the stock of his knowledge, they enter the system of his views as their necessary component, they acquire a special personal meaning for a person, and therefore he feels an urgent need to approve these thoughts and principles, to protect them, to ensure that they are shared by other people.
The presence of beliefs covering a wide range of issues in the field of literature, art, social life, industrial activity, indicates a high level of personality activity.
The degree of development and the nature of the orientation of the personality activity differ in different people. Often a person knows how to act in certain conflict situations, knows what point of view should be supported in a dispute, but does not experience this knowledge as a need to confirm it in life. The discrepancy between the knowledge of the individual and his needs, motives becomes a defect in the sphere of beliefs, which indicates that he has a kind of "double morality". In other words, his actual beliefs are significantly different from those that he proclaims and demonstrates to others. Realizing this, he can spend a lot of effort to give the impression of a whole, principled person.
The motives that have been discussed so far are characterized primarily by the fact that they are conscious. In other words, the person who has them is aware of what prompts him to activity, what is the content of his needs. However, not all motives fall into this category. An important area of \u200b\u200bmotivation for human actions and deeds is formed by unconscious urges.
PERSONAL CONSCIOUSNESS.
Living in human society and interacting with people and the surrounding objective environment, a person separates himself from the surrounding world, feels himself a subject of his physical and mental states, actions and processes, begins to perceive himself as an “I”, opposing others and at the same time inseparably with related to them. The experience of having one's own "I" is subjectively expressed primarily in the fact that a person understands his identity with himself in the present, past and future. “I” today, with all possible changes in my position in any new and unexpected situations, with any restructuring of my life, my consciousness of views and attitudes, is the “I” of the same person who existed yesterday and what he will be after entering tomorrow.
The experience of having your own “I” appears as a result of a long process of personality development, which begins in infancy and is designated as “discovery, I” ”. At the age of one year, the child begins to realize the difference between the sensations of his own body and those sensations that are caused by objects outside. Subsequently, by the age of 2-3 years, the child begins to separate the process and the result of his own actions with objects from the objective actions of adults, declaring the latter about his requirements: "I myself!" For the first time he realizes himself as a subject of his own actions and deeds (a personal pronoun appears in the child's speech), not only distinguishing himself from the environment, but also opposing himself to the rest (“This is mine, this is not yours!”).
At the turn of kindergarten and school, in elementary grades, there is an opportunity, with the assistance of adults, to approach the assessment of their mental qualities (memory, thinking, etc.), while still at the level of understanding the reasons for their successes and failures (“I have all the“ fives ”, and in arithmetic - “three”, because I copy it off the board incorrectly. Anna Petrovna gave me “two” so many times for carelessness ”). Finally, in adolescence and adolescence, as a result of active inclusion in social life and work activity, an expanded system of social and moral self-assessments begins to form, the development of self-awareness is completed, and the image of "I" is mainly formed.
The image of "I". It is known that in adolescence and adolescence, the desire for self-perception increases, for the awareness of one's place in life and oneself as a subject of relations with others. The formation of self-awareness is associated with this. Older schoolchildren form an image of their own "I" ("I-image", "I-concept"). Image "I"- it is a relatively stable, not always conscious, experienced as a unique system of ideas of the individual about himself, on the basis of which he builds his interaction with others . The attitude to oneself is also built into the image of "I": a person can relate to himself in fact in the same way as he relates to another, respecting or despising himself, loving and hating and even understanding and not understanding himself - the individual in himself by his actions and is represented by actions as in the other. The image of "I" thus fits into the structure of the personality. He acts as an attitude towards himself. Like any installation, the image of "I" includes three components.
First of all,cognitive component: idea of \u200b\u200btheir abilities, appearance, social significance, etc. One teenager highlights the imposing look he thinks come from jeans with a brightly branded label in his “I-Look”. Another of his peers is the unforgettable fact of winning the district table tennis competitions. The third is a dramatic defeat for him in the same competitions and difficulties in mastering physics and mathematics, which are really difficult for him. Secondly,emotional-evaluative component: self-esteem, self-criticism, selfishness, self-deprecation, etc. Thirdly -behavioral (strong-willed): the desire to be understood, to win the sympathy and respect of comrades and teachers, to raise one's status or the desire to remain unnoticed, to evade evaluation and criticism, to hide one's shortcomings, etc.
The image of "I" is both a prerequisite and a consequence of social interaction. In fact, psychologists fix in a person not one image of his "I", but a multitude of successive "I-images", alternately coming to the fore of self-awareness, then losing their meaning in a given situation of social interaction. “I-image” is not a static, but a dynamic formation of an individual's personality.
"I-image" can be experienced as an idea of \u200b\u200boneself at the moment of the experience itself, usually denoted in psychology as « real me » , but it would probably be more correct to call it the momentary or "current I" of the subject. When a teenager at some point says or thinks: “I despise myself,” then this manifestation of adolescent maximalism in assessments should not be perceived as a stable characteristic of the “I-image” of the student. It is more than likely that after a while his self-image will change to the opposite.
"I-image" is at the same time "Ideal self" subject - what he should, in his opinion, become in order to meet the internal criteria of success. "Ideal I" acts as a necessary guideline in the self-education of the individual. By identifying the nature and effectiveness of this landmark, the teacher gets the opportunity to significantly influence education. At the same time, it is important to know what ideal a young person is guided by as a model for building his life, since the social value of these models is very different, and their motivating value is very great.
Let us indicate one more variant of the emergence of the "I-image" - "Fantastic self" - what the subject would like to become, if it were possible for him, what he would like to see himself. The significance of this “I” image is very high, especially in older adolescence and adolescence, due to the tendency of high school students to make plans for the future, the creation of which is impossible without imagination.
The construction of their fantastic "I" is characteristic not only of young men, but also of adults. When assessing the motivating significance of this “I-image”, it is important to know whether the individual's objective understanding of his position and place in life has been replaced by his “fantastic I”. The predominance in the personality structure of fantastic ideas about oneself, not accompanied by actions that would contribute to the realization of the desired, disorganizes the activity and self-consciousness of a person and, in the end, can severely injure him due to the obvious discrepancy between the desired and the actual.
The degree of adequacy of the "I-image" is found out when studying one of its most important aspects - self-esteem of the individual.
Self-assessment - an individual's assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people. This is the most essential and most studied side of personality self-awareness in psychology. . With the help of self-esteem, a person's behavior is regulated.
How does a person carry out self-esteem? A person, as shown above, becomes a person as a result of joint activities and communication. Everything that has developed and settled in the personality has arisen due to joint activities with other people and in communication with them and is intended for this. A person includes in activity and communication essential guidelines for his behavior, all the time verifies what he is doing with what others expect from him, copes with their opinions, feelings and requirements. Ultimately, if we leave aside the satisfaction of natural needs, everything that a person does for himself (whether he learns, promotes something or hinders), he does at the same time for others, and can be more for others, than for himself, even if it seems to him that everything is just the opposite.
K. Marx owns a just thought: at first a person looks like in a mirror, in another person. Only by treating the man Paul as his own kind does the man Peter begin to treat himself as a man. In other words, knowing the qualities of another person, a person receives the necessary information that allows him to develop his own assessment. The already established assessments of one's own “I” are the result of a constant comparison of what a person observes in himself with what he sees in other people. A person, already knowing something about himself, looks closely at another person, compares himself with him, assumes that he is not indifferent to his personal qualities, actions, manifestations; all this is included in the self-esteem of the individual and determines his psychological well-being. In other words, a person is guided by a certain reference group (real or ideal), the ideals of which are its ideals, interests are its interests, etc. In the process of communication, she constantly checks herself against the standard and, depending on the results of the test, turns out to be satisfied with herself or dissatisfied. What is the psychological mechanism of this check?
Psychology has a number of experimental methods for identifying human self-esteem, its quantitative and qualitative characteristics.
So, using the coefficient of rank correlation, an individual's idea of \u200b\u200ba sequential series of reference qualities (ie, his “ideal I” is determined) can be compared with his “current I”, ie. a number of qualities located in the sequence in which they appear to a given person to be expressed in himself.
It is important that in the experiment the subject does not inform the experimenter of information about his real and ideal “I”, but makes the necessary calculations on his own according to the formula proposed to him, which relieves him of the fear of saying more about himself than he would like, unnecessarily revealing himself. The obtained coefficients of self-esteem of the individual make it possible to judge what the "I-image" is in quantitative terms.
There is an idea that each person has a kind of "internal pressure gauge", the readings of which indicate how he assesses himself, what his state of health is, whether he is satisfied with himself or not. The value of this total assessment of satisfaction with one's qualities is very high. Too high and too low self-esteem can become an internal source of personality conflicts. Of course, this conflict can manifest itself in different ways.
High self-esteem leads to the fact that a person is inclined to overestimate himself in situations that do not give a reason for this. As a result, he often encounters opposition from others who reject his claims, becomes embittered, shows suspicion, suspiciousness or deliberate arrogance, aggression and, in the end, may lose the necessary interpersonal contacts and become isolated.
Excessively low self-esteem may indicate the development of an inferiority complex, persistent self-doubt, rejection of initiative, indifference, self-blame and anxiety.
The fact that self-esteem is a result, which is not always clearly perceived by a person, allows us to understand the complex, composite nature of self-esteem, to find out that self-assessment is carried out not directly, but with the help of a standard, which is composed of value orientations, ideals of the individual.
However, to characterize the position of a person, it is apparently not enough to know only self-esteem. It is important to have an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat, in the opinion of a given person, the assessment that the person has earned in a given group, which, as she expects, her peers can give (expected assessment). It is detected using a similar experimental procedure and can also be high, medium, low, it can approach the level of self-esteem more or less, and finally, it can be different in relation to different reference groups. It is noticed that, being stable in relation to his team, the expected assessment changes significantly, becomes unstable, hesitant when a person enters a new team, forms new communications.
Having established the fact that a person who is in new life circumstances returns to the initially expected assessment, we thereby find out the degree of the person's entry into the new group, the level of his understanding with the group, and at the same time the nature of his well-being in the group. Experimental data were obtained demonstrating the effect of the rating system as a regulator of group relationships. Thus, a significant increase in the self-esteem of a person is associated with a decrease in the indicator of the expected assessment. An individual, having been convinced by experience of the discrepancy between self-esteem and the actual attitude of those around him, no longer expects high marks from them. In addition, it turned out that an increase in the assessment that a person gives to others leads to an increase in the real assessment on the part of others, i.e. personality assessment by the group. A well-grounded assumption was made that the high assessment by the individual of his group is connected with the fact that the individual is really contact, lives by its interests, respects its values. In turn, the collective, as it were, accumulates a good attitude towards it from one of its members and returns to him this high appreciation multiplied.
Let's consider other relationships in the personality assessment system. Here we have a person with a high self-esteem, a low assessment of others and a low expected assessment - a person who is obviously conflicted in relations with other people, inclined to ascribe to those around him mental callousness or other negative traits. The other person has an unreasonably high expected score. He may have a condescending attitude towards others, self-confidence. In any case, even if all these qualities are not manifested in behavior, they develop potentially, gradually, and, at a convenient opportunity, can be revealed in the general structure of personality behavior, since there is a favorable ground for them.
Three indicators - self-esteem, the expected assessment of others, the assessment of the group's personality - are part of the personality structure, and whether a person wants it or not, he is objectively forced to reckon with these subjective indicators of his well-being in the group, the success or failure of his achievements, position in relation to himself and others. He must reckon with them even when he does not suspect the presence of these indicators, does not know anything about the operation of the psychological mechanism of assessments and self-esteem. In essence, it is a mechanism of social contacts, orientations and values \u200b\u200btransferred into the human personality (internalized). A person is checked against his testimony, entering into communication, actively acting. This check occurs mainly unconsciously, and the personality adjusts to the modes of behavior determined by these indicators.
Unconsciously does not mean uncontrollably. It should not be forgotten that all essential assessments are formed in the conscious life of an individual. Before they were internalized, they were visibly represented in interpersonal contacts. Family, teachers, comrades, books, films actively formed, for example, the child's “I am ideal” and at the same time “I am real”, taught him to compare them. The child learned to evaluate others according to the same indicators by which he evaluated himself, having previously learned to be equal to others. As a result, a person got used to peering into a social group, as in a mirror, and then moved this skill inside his personality.
In order to understand a person, it is necessary to clearly understand the action of these unconsciously emerging forms of controlling a person's behavior, to pay attention to the entire system of assessments with which a person characterizes himself and others, to see the dynamics of changes in these assessments.
The level of personality claims. Self-esteem is closely related to the level of personality claims. Level of claims - This is the desired level of self-esteem of the individual (the level of the "I" image), manifested in the degree of difficulty of the goal that the individual sets for himself.
The desire to improve self-esteem in the case when a person has the opportunity to freely choose the degree of difficulty of the next action, generates a conflict of two tendencies: on the one hand, the desire to increase aspirations in order to experience maximum success, and on the other, to reduce aspirations in order to avoid failure. In case of success, the level of aspirations usually rises, the person shows a willingness to solve more difficult problems, if not, it decreases accordingly.
The level of personality claims in a specific activity can be determined quite accurately. Let's give an example.
A beginner athlete, knocking down the bar set at 1 m 70 cm during a high jump, will not experience a feeling of failure and will not become upset - he does not expect record jumps from himself. In the same way, he will not be happy if he takes a height of 1 m 10 cm - the goal here is too easy to achieve. But, gradually raising the bar and asking the young man whether he is satisfied with the height, which will be credited for the jump, it will be possible to find out the level of his claims.
This simplest model shows that a person sets the level of their claims somewhere between too difficult and too easy tasks and goals in this way, to maintain your self-esteem at the proper height.
The formation of the level of aspirations is determined not only by the anticipation of success or failure, but above all by sober, and sometimes vaguely perceived consideration and assessment of past successes or failures. The formation of the level of aspirations can be traced in the student's educational work, when choosing a topic for a report at a circle, in social work, etc.
In one foreign study, it was shown that among the subjects there are individuals who, in cases of risk, are more concerned not with achieving success, but with avoiding failure. And if they have to make a choice between tasks of varying degrees of difficulty, then they choose either the easiest or the most difficult. The first - because they are convinced of success (the element of risk is minimal); the latter, because failure in this case will be justified by the exceptional difficulty of the task. At the same time, self-esteem will not be wounded and there will be no deformation of the “I” image.
Studies of the level of personality claims, not only in terms of their effectiveness, but also in terms of their content, in connection with the goals and objectives of the team, make it possible to better understand the motivation of a person's behavior and to carry out a directional influence that forms the best qualities of a person. In some cases, the task of increasing the level of personality aspirations becomes essential for the teacher; if a student does not evaluate himself and his capabilities highly, this leads to a certain inferiority, a steady loss of confidence in success. Repeated failures can lead to a general loss of self-esteem, accompanied by severe emotional breakdowns and conflicts, to the fact that the student gives up on himself. A teacher who systematically puts a "two" against the surname of this student in the magazine, apparently correctly assessing his knowledge, makes a serious mistake if he ignores the psychology of a student who has come to terms with this state of affairs.
Ways to increase the level of aspirations are different and depend on the personality of the student, character frustrations (a psychological state arising from an obstacle that prevents the achievement of a goal significant for a person), the teacher's real capabilities, etc. Here, both direct help from the teacher and various methods of creating perspective for the individual are possible. These perspectives can be identified initially in a different area, not related to the one in which the frustrations were found. Then, the activity created in this way switches to the sphere where it is necessary to increase the level of personality claims and restore the decreased self-esteem. A careful attitude to the human personality, a reasonably optimistic approach to its prospects give the teacher the opportunity to find a strategy for individual work with a child or adolescent, which will help to awaken in him self-respect and confidence in his abilities.
In other cases, it is important for the teacher to somewhat lower the level of aspirations of the child or adolescent, especially where the tasks that the student sets for himself are not justified by the real situation, and the student's self-esteem of the student's capabilities is unjustifiably overestimated: he has conceit, a kind of superiority complex arises and etc. The need to solve such a problem is emphasized not only by the fact that a student with an unjustifiably overestimated level of aspirations is resolutely rebuffed in the team (viewed as a braggart), but also because his overestimated self-esteem, repeatedly conflicting with real failures, gives rise conflicts. Often, at the same time, the student, trying to ignore the facts of personal failures that are incompatible with his clearly overestimated self-esteem, shows stubbornness, resentment, behaves inadequately, pretending to be completely satisfied, or seeks to explain his failures by someone's opposition, someone's ill will, becoming suspicious, angry , aggressive. With frequent repetition, these mental states become fixed as stable traits.
Psychological protection of the individual... Self-awareness of the individual, using the mechanism of self-assessment, sensitively registers the ratio of his own aspirations and real achievements. Back at the beginning of the XX century. American psychologist W. James expressed an important idea that the defining component of the image of a person's "I" - self-esteem - is characterized by the ratio of its actual achievements to what a person claims and expects. They proposed a formula where the numerator expressed the real achievements of the individual, and the denominator - his claims: Self-esteem \u003d success / ambition.
As the numerator increases and the denominator decreases, the fraction is known to increase. Therefore, in order to maintain self-esteem, in one case, a person must make maximum efforts and achieve success, which is a difficult task; the other way is to lower the level of aspirations, in which self-respect, even with very modest successes, will not be lost . Of course, a properly set upbringing process is designed to orient the individual towards the first way of maintaining self-esteem. A person in his activities (educational, labor, etc.) should not give in to difficulties, but overcome them, revealing his volitional qualities and strong character and thereby maintaining the optimal ratio of success and reasonable claims. But one has to reckon with the fact that other people choose the second way of maintaining self-esteem, lowering the level of aspirations, i.e. resort to passive psychological protection of their "I-image".
Psychological protection cannot be reduced to only cases of lowering the level of aspirations, but is a special regulatory system used by a person to eliminate psychological discomfort, experiences that threaten the "self-image" and keep it at the level desirable and possible for the given circumstances.
The concept of "defense mechanisms" was developed by the head of the psychoanalytic school 3. Freud. He suggested that the unconscious sphere of a person (mainly sexual) collides with the “defense mechanisms” of the conscious “I”, the “internal censorship” of the personality and as a result undergoes various transformations. It is noteworthy that psychological defense was described by great writers, the deepest experts in human psychology F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy and others.
The mechanisms of psychological defense usually include denial, repression, projection, identification, rationalization, substitution, alienation.
Negation - a type of psychological defense, in which the information disturbing a person is not perceived.
crowding out - active exclusion of unpleasant information or unpleasant motive from consciousness.
Rationalization - a pseudo-rational explanation by a person of his desires, actions, in reality caused by reasons, the recognition of which would threaten the loss of self-esteem.
Identification - unconscious transfer to oneself of feelings and qualities inherent in another person and inaccessible, but desirable for oneself.
Projection - unconscious transfer to another person, ascribing to him his own feelings, desires, experiences, thoughts, etc., in which a person cannot admit to himself, understanding their social unacceptability.
Alienation - a type of psychological protection, in which there is a separation within the consciousness of factors traumatizing a person.
Substitution - a type of psychological defense in which actions aimed at an inaccessible object are transferred to an action with an accessible object.
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT.
The psyche possessed by an individual is connected with his brain and is a property through which he builds a picture of the world and on its basis regulates his activity. At the same time, the individual also reveals himself as a person, being the subject of inter-human relations, social in nature.
The development of the psyche and the development of the personality are closely interconnected - it is impossible to imagine a normal person with consciousness who would not act as the subject of interindividual relations, i.e. would not be a person. However, it does not follow from this that the personality of the subject and his psyche are identical concepts.
Let us explain what has been said with an example. Attractiveness is a characteristic of a person's personality. However, it cannot be considered as a characteristic of his psyche, if only because this person is attractive to others, and it is in the psyche of these people, consciously or unconsciously, that an emotional attitude towards him as an attractive person develops, the corresponding attitude is formed. Of course, a person's attractiveness presupposes that he has a complex of certain individual psychological qualities. However, no even the most sophisticated psychological analysis addressed to these individual psychological characteristics can by itself explain why in some communities this subject turns out to be attractive, and in others - a repulsive personality. To answer this question, a socio-psychological analysis of these communities is necessary, and this becomes an essential condition for understanding the personality. So, without identifying the level of development of the group, it is impossible to explain the reasons for the attractiveness or unattractiveness of the person. It is possible to describe in detail the qualities of the psyche of a hero or a villain, but outside the actions they commit, and therefore, without analyzing the changes that these actions (good deeds or atrocities) make in the life of other people, it is impossible to characterize them psychologically, and as personalities they are we will not appear.
A person who finds himself on an uninhabited island, for a long time, perhaps forever fenced off from society, can be neither a noble person, nor a scoundrel, nor honest, nor dishonorable, nor kind, nor evil, although he retains those individual psychological characteristics for a long time, which underlie the formation of these personality characteristics.
Significant conclusions follow from this. Psychology traditionally considers mainly issues of the development of the psyche of children and adolescents (the formation of memory, thinking, imagination, will, feelings, etc.), reveals general age-related psychological patterns, which are revealed, and only partially affects the problems of personality development. The obvious discrepancy between the concepts of "psyche" and "personality", as well as the concepts of "mental development" and "personality development", with all their unity, suggests the need to highlight a special process of personality development as a social, systemic quality of a person, a subject of a system of human relations.
The process of personality development, therefore, cannot be reduced to a set of developing cognitive, emotional and volitional components that characterize a person's individuality, although it is inseparable from them.
The concept of personality, although it is constantly used, is not sufficiently revealed and often turns out to be a synonym for either consciousness, or self-consciousness, or attitudes, or the psyche in general.
Currently, certain theoretical ideas, hypotheses and concepts are emerging that seek to provide a psychological basis for the process of personality development, without separating it from the process of mental development, but also without dissolving it in the general flow of the child's mental development. Thus, a socio-psychological concept of the development of the personality of a child and adolescent is proposed.
What determines the development of a person's personality in ontogenesis? The determinant of personality development is the activity-mediated type of relationship that develops in a person with the most referential (significant for him) group (s) during this period. These relationships are mediated by the content and nature of the activities that this reference group sets, and the communication that develops in it. Based on this, we can conclude that group development acts as a factor in the development of personality in the group.
In accordance with the concept of personalization, an individual is characterized by the need to be a person (that is, to be and remain to the maximum extent represented by qualities that are significant for him in the life of other people, to carry out with his activity the transformation of their semantic sphere) and the ability to be a person (i.e. a set of individual characteristics and means that allow you to commit acts that ensure the satisfaction of the need to be a person).
The best opportunities for realizing this need are created by such a group in which the personalization of everyone is a condition for the personalization of everyone.
Personality development in a relatively stable group... In its most general form, personality development can be represented as the process of its entry into a new social environment and integration in it. Whether we are talking about the transition of a child from kindergarten to school, a teenager to a new company, an applicant to a labor collective, a conscript to an army unit, or is it talking about personal development on a global scale - in its long-term and integrity - from infancy to civil maturity, this process cannot be thought of other than entering social and historical being, represented in a person's life by his participation in the activities of various groups in which he masters and which he actively assimilates.
The degree of stability of this environment is different. Only conditionally can we accept it as constant, unchanging.
There is a possibility of building a model of personality development when it enters a relatively stable social environment. In this case, the development of personality in it is subject to psychological laws, which are necessarily reproduced almost independently of the specific characteristics of the community in which it occurs - both in the first grades of school, and in a new company, and in a production brigade, and in a military unit. more or less identical. The stages of personality development in a relatively stable community are called personality development phases. Can be allocated three phases of personality development: adaptation, individualization and integration.
The first phase of personality formation presupposes the active assimilation of norms acting in the community and the mastery of the corresponding forms and means of activity. Having brought with him to the new group everything that makes up his individuality, the subject cannot express himself as a person before he masters the norms that are in effect in the group (moral, educational, industrial, etc.) and masters those methods and means of activity that other members possess. groups. He has an objective need to “be like everyone else”, to adapt as much as possible in the community. This is achieved (some more, others less successfully) due to the subjectively experienced loss of some of their individual differences with the possible illusion of dissolution in the "general mass". Subjectively - because in fact, the individual often continues himself in other people with his actions, changes in the motivational and semantic sphere of other people, which are meaningful specifically for them, and not only for himself. Objectively, even at this stage, he can, under certain circumstances, act as a person for others, although he is not fully aware of this fact that is essential for him. At the same time, in group activity, favorable conditions can develop for the emergence of such personality traits that this individual did not have before, but which other members of the group have or already have and which correspond to the level of group development and maintain this level. So, the first phase is adaptation.
The second phase is generated by the aggravating contradiction between the achieved result of adaptation — the fact that the subject has become “like everyone else” in the group — and the individual's need for maximum personalization, which is not satisfied at the first stage. At this phase, the search for means and ways to indicate their individuality and fix it is growing. So, for example, a teenager who got into a new company of older guys for him, initially striving not to stand out in anything, diligently assimilating the norms of communication, vocabulary, clothing style, generally accepted interests and tastes, having finally coped with the difficulties of the adaptation period, begins vaguely , and sometimes acutely aware that by adhering to this tactic, he as a person loses himself. To the maximum extent realizing in this regard the need to be ideally represented in his friends, the adolescent mobilizes all his internal resources for the active transmission of his individuality (for example, erudition, sporting success, "experience" in relations between the sexes, courage bordering on bravado, special manner in dances, etc.), intensifies the search in this group of persons that are referential for him, who can ensure his optimal personalization. This is the second phase - individualization.
The third phase is determined by the contradictions between the subject's desire to be ideally represented in others by his own characteristics and differences that are significant for him - on the one hand, and the need of the community to accept, approve and cultivate only those individual characteristics that it demonstrates, which impressed it, correspond to its values. , standards, contribute to the success of joint activities, etc., on the other.
Having become members of the production team, yesterday's schoolchildren, having undergone adaptation, in the second phase of the formation of their personality, strive to find ways to indicate their individuality, their characteristics, which others are closely watching. As a result, these revealed positive differences (ingenuity, hard work, humor, dedication, etc.) are accepted and supported - the personality is integrated into the community. Integration is also observed when it is not so much the individual who matches his need for personalization with the needs of the community, but the community transforms its needs in accordance with the needs of the individual, who in this case takes the position of a leader. However, the mutual transformation of the individual and the group always happens in one way or another.
If the contradiction between the individual and the group turns out to be unresolved, disintegration arises, its consequence is either the displacement of the personality from the given community, or its actual isolation in it, which leads to the consolidation of the characteristics of egocentric individualization, or its return to an even earlier phase of development. Often, the latter is accompanied by the adoption of appropriate educational measures to ensure the effective adaptation of a young person, which, obviously, was not previously successfully implemented and completed.
So, the third phase is the integration of the personality into the community. Within the framework of this phase, in the group activity, the individual develops new formations of the personality - features that not only he did not have, but, perhaps, other members of the group do not have, but which correspond to the need and needs of group development and the individual's own need to realize meaningful "Contribution" to the life of the group.
Each of these phases acts as the moment of the formation of a personality in its most important manifestations and qualities - here the microcycles of its development take place. If a person fails to overcome the difficulties of the adaptation period in a social environment that is stably significant for him and enter the second phase of development, he will most likely develop the qualities of conformity, dependence, lack of initiative, shyness, lack of confidence in himself and in his capabilities. During his entire stay in a given community, he seems to "stall" in the first phase of formation and assertion of himself as a person, and this leads to serious personal deformation. If, being already in the phase of individualization and trying to ensure his representation in the members of a community that is significant for him, he presents them with his individual differences, which they do not accept and reject, as not corresponding to the needs of the community, then this contributes to the development of such personal new formations as negativism, aggressiveness, suspicion, inadequate overestimation of self-esteem. If he successfully passes the phase of integration in a highly developed pro-social community, he will develop positive personality traits.
Significant changes, subject to the same sequence of phases of personality development, occur whenever the social situation in which the individual is involved is significantly transformed. The leader, who, due to certain circumstances, has lost his leading role, is sometimes forced to go through the adaptation phase again in the same community, find the strength and means for active individualization and be integrated into the community due to the positive contribution that contributes to its development and his own development as a person.
So, the source of the development and affirmation of the personality is the contradiction between the individual's need for personalization and the objective interest of the community as a reference for him to accept only those manifestations of his individuality that correspond to the tasks, norms and conditions of functioning and development in this community. Successful overcoming of this contradiction ensures the integration of the individual in the group, more broadly, in the system of social relations.
Personal development in a changing environment... The social environment in which the personality exists and changes is only relatively stable, and itself is in a state of constant change and development. It turns into new and new facets and includes a person in more and more new situations, new groups, in general, in new circumstances of life. For example, the relatively smooth development of the personality in the conditions of the senior grades of school undergoes a change when moving to a production brigade or military unit.
Accepted in one reference group, a person turns out to be not integrated, rejected in another, into which he is included after or simultaneously with the first. He again and again has to assert himself in his personal position. Thus, knots of new contradictions are tied, complicating the process of personality formation, in their extreme manifestations leading to neurotic breakdowns. In addition, the groups themselves referent for him are in the process of development, forming a dynamic system, to the changes of which the individual can adapt only under the condition of active participation in the reproduction of these changes. Therefore, along with the internal dynamics of personality development within a relatively stable social community, it is necessary to take into account the objective dynamics of the development of those groups in which the personality is included, and their specific features, non-identity to each other.
The personality develops in groups hierarchically located at the stages of ontogeny. The nature and characteristics of personality development are set by the level of development of the group in which it is included and in which it is integrated.
The personality of a child, adolescent, youth develops as a result of successive inclusion in communities of different levels of development, dominant at different age levels, and, thus, the development of a personality is determined by the development process of the group in which it is integrated.
The features of personality integration in communities of different levels of development are subordinate to patterns specific to these groups, and their transfer to groups of a different degree of development cannot but lead to serious theoretical errors and incorrectly made practical decisions. The stages of personality development in a changing social environment are called periods of development.
Age periodization of personality development. The above theoretical foundations allow us to understand the process of age-related development of a personality.
Pedagogy and psychology distinguish the following age stages of personality formation: early childhood (0-3), kindergarten (4-6), primary school (6-10), middle school (or adolescent) (11-15), senior school (or early adolescence) (16-17).
In early childhood personality development is carried out mainly in the family, which, depending on the adopted upbringing tactics, either acts as a prosocial association or collective (with the prevalence of the tactics of "family cooperation"), or distorts the development of the child's personality. The latter occurs in groups of a low level of development, where confrontation dominates in the relationship between parents and children. Depending on the nature of family relations, for example, the personality of a child may initially take shape either as a gentle, caring, not afraid to admit his mistakes and oversights, open, not shirking the responsibility of a little person, or as a cowardly, lazy, greedy, capricious self-lover. The importance of the period of early childhood for the formation of personality, which was noted by many psychologists and whose role was often mystified by Freudianism, in reality lies in the fact that the child from the first year of his conscious life is in a sufficiently developed group and, to the extent of his inherent activity, learns a type of relationship that formed in her, transforming them into the features of his becoming personality.
The stages of development in early childhood record the following results: first, adaptation at the level of mastering the simplest skills, mastering language as a means of introducing into social life with the initial inability to distinguish one's “I” from the surrounding phenomena; the second is individualization, opposing oneself to those around him: “my mother,” “I am my mother,” “my toys,” etc., demonstrating one's differences from others in behavior; the third is integration, which allows you to control your behavior, reckon with others, obey the requirements of adults, present them with realistic requests, etc.
The upbringing and development of the child, starting and continuing in the family, from 3-4 years at the same time in kindergarten, in a peer group under the guidance of an educator, where a new situation of personality development arises. The transition to this new stage of personality development is not determined by psychological laws (they only ensure his readiness for this transition), but is determined from the outside by social reasons, which include the development of the system of preschool institutions, their prestige, parents' employment in production, etc. If the transition to a new period is not prepared within the previous age period by the successful course of the integration phase, then here (as well as at the boundary between any other age periods) conditions are created for a crisis of personality development - the adaptation of the child in kindergarten turns out to be difficult.
Preschool age is characterized by the inclusion of a child in a group of peers in kindergarten, managed by a teacher, who, as a rule, becomes for him, along with his parents, the most reference person. The educator, relying on the help of the family, seeks, using as a mediating factor various types and forms of activity (play, educational, labor, sports, etc.), to rally children around him, forming humanity, hard work and other socially valuable qualities.
Three phases of personality development within this period presuppose: adaptation - the assimilation of norms and methods of behavior approved by parents and educators in conditions of interaction with others; individualization - the child's desire to find something in himself that distinguishes him from other children, either positively in various types of amateur performance, or in pranks and whims - in both cases, when focusing on the assessment not so much of other children as of parents and educators; integration - the harmonization of a preschooler's unconscious desire to designate by their actions their own uniqueness and the readiness of adults to accept only that in him that corresponds to the socially conditioned and most important task for them to ensure the child a successful transition to a new stage - to school and, therefore, in the third period of personality development.
At primary school age the situation of personality development is in many ways similar to the previous one. The three phases that form it give the student the opportunity to enter a group of classmates that is completely new for him, which is initially diffuse in nature. The teacher leading this group turns out, in comparison with the kindergarten teacher, even more referential for children, since she, using the apparatus of daily marks, regulates the child's relationship both with his peers and with adults, especially with parents, forms their attitude towards him and his attitude towards himself “as another”.
It is noteworthy that it is not so much educational activity in itself that acts as a factor in the development of the personality of a younger student, as the attitude of adults to his educational activity, to his academic performance, discipline and diligence. Learning activity itself, as a personality-forming factor, apparently acquires maximum significance in senior school age, which is characterized by a conscious attitude to learning, the formation of a worldview under conditions of upbringing education (in literature, history, physics, biology lessons, etc.). The third phase of the period of primary school age means, in all likelihood, not only the integration of the student in the system "pupils-pupils", but above all in the system "pupils-teacher", "pupils-parents".
Specific feature adolescence, in comparison with the previous ones, is that joining it does not mean entering a new group (unless a reference group has arisen outside the school, which very often happens), but represents a further development of the personality in a developing group, but in changed conditions and circumstances (the emergence of subject teachers instead of one teacher in the lower grades, the beginnings of joint work in agriculture, the opportunity to spend time at a disco, etc.) in the presence of a significant restructuring of the body in conditions of rapid puberty.
The groups themselves become different and change qualitatively. A multitude of new tasks in various significant types of activity generates a multitude of communities, from which, in some cases, associations that are prosocial in nature are formed, and in others, associations arise that inhibit and sometimes distort the development of the personality.
Microcycles of adolescent personality development run for the same student in parallel in different reference groups that are competitive for him in their importance. Successful integration in one of them (for example, in a school drama club or in communication with a classmate at the time of his first love) can be combined with disintegration in a company, in which he had previously gone through the adaptation phase, not without difficulties. Individual qualities valued in one group are rejected in another group, where other activities and other value orientations and standards dominate, and this blocks the possibility of successful integration in it. The contradictions in the adolescent's intergroup position are no less important than the contradictions that arise within the microcycle of his development.
The need to “be a person” at this age acquires a distinct form of self-affirmation, explained by the relatively protracted nature of individualization, since the personality traits of a teenager that allow him to fit into, for example, a friendly group of peers, often do not meet the requirements of teachers, parents and adults in general, who tend in this case to push it to the stage of primary adaptation.
The plurality, easy changeability and substantive differences of the reference groups, inhibiting the passage of the integration phase, at the same time create specific features of the adolescent's psychology, participate in the formation of psychological new formations. Stable positive integration of the personality is ensured by its entry into a group of the highest level of development - either in the case of its transition to a new community, or as a result of uniting the same group of schoolchildren around an exciting activity.
A prosocial reference group becomes a genuine collective, an asocial association can be reborn into a corporate group.
The process of personality development in various groups - a specific feature of youth, in terms of its time parameters, it goes beyond the boundaries of senior school age, which can be designated as the period of early adolescence. Adaptation, individualization and integration of the personality ensure the formation of a mature personality and are a condition for the formation of the groups into which they belong. The organic integration of the personality in a highly developed group, therefore, means that the characteristics of the collective act as characteristics of the individual (group as personal, personal as group).
Thus, a multi-stage periodization scheme is constructed, in which eras, eras, periods and phases of personality development are distinguished.
Identifying the “era of ascent to social maturity” is necessary and expedient. If we imagine the social environment in its global characteristics as relatively stable and remember that the goal of upbringing literally from the first years of a child's life and throughout all subsequent years remains the development of his personality, then the entire path to the implementation of this goal can be interpreted as a single and integral stage. In this case, in accordance with the provisions justified above, it assumes three phases of personality development, its entry into a social whole, i.e. already mentioned adaptation, individualization and integration.
Extended in time, they act as macrophases of personality development within one era, denoted as three eras: childhood, adolescence, youth. It is in this way that the child ultimately turns into a mature, independent person, capable of functioning, ready to reproduce and educate a new person, to continue himself in his children. The third macrophase (epoch), starting at school, goes beyond its chronological limits. Adolescence appears as an era of turning point, of exacerbation of contradictions, which is typical for the stage of individualization.
Epochs are subdivided into periods of personality development in a specific environment, in the types of groups characteristic of each age stage, differing in level of development. Periods, in turn, as already indicated, are divided into phases (here already microphases) of personality development.
The epoch of childhood - the most lasting macrophase of personality development - covers three age periods (preschool, preschool, junior school), adolescence and adolescence coincide. The era of adolescence and the period of early adolescence, in turn, overlap (early adolescence is limited by the scope of being in school).
The first macrophase (the era of childhood) is characterized by the relative predominance of adaptation over individualization, for the second (the era of adolescence) - individualization over adaptation (years of turning point, aggravation of contradictions), for the third (the era of adolescence) - the dominance of integration over individualization.
This concept of personality development allows you to combine the approaches of social and developmental psychology.
So, the personality is formed and develops in the conditions of the concrete historical existence of a person, in activities (labor, educational, etc.). Education and upbringing play a leading role in the processes of personality formation.
Temperament.
General concept of temperament. You cannot find two people with the same mental properties. Each person differs from others in many features, the unity of which forms his individuality. In the psychological differences between people, an essential place is occupied by the so-called dynamic features of the psyche. As you know, people noticeably differ from each other in the strength of the response to environmental influences, in the energy they display, in the pace, speed of mental processes. This kind of features essentially characterize the mental activity of the individual, his motor skills, emotional manifestations. So, for one person passivity is more characteristic, for another - tireless initiative, one is inherent in the ease of awakening feelings, and another is composure, one is distinguished
sharp gestures, expressive facial expressions, the other - restraint of movements, very low mobility of the face.
Of course, the dynamic manifestations of a person may depend on the requirements of the situation, on educated attitudes and habits, etc. But the mental differences in question also appear, all other things being equal: in the same circumstances, with a relative equality of the motives of behavior. These individual characteristics are manifested even in the years of childhood, are distinguished by special constancy, are found in a variety of spheres of behavior and activity, i.e. they are not only external. Many experimental studies have proven that this kind of dynamic manifestations are based on the individual natural, innate properties of a person.
The dynamic features inherent in an individual are internally interconnected and constitute a kind of structure. Individually unique, extremely stable mental properties due to the simultaneous action of several psychophysiological mechanisms that give behavior a certain direction and a certain range of formal-dynamic properties of the motor, emotional and perceptual subsystems are called temperament.
History of ideas about temperament. The term "temperament" goes back to the views of ancient science on the nature of individual psychological differences. Ancient Greek medicine, represented by its largest representative Hippocrates (5th century BC), believed that the state of the body depends mainly on the quantitative ratio of the "juices" or liquids in it. Blood, bile, black bile and mucus (phlegm) were considered such “juices” necessary for life, and it was assumed that their optimal ratio was necessary for health. Roman physicians, who worked several centuries later, began to use the word temperamentum to denote "proportion" in mixing liquids, which means "the proper ratio of parts", from which the term "temperament" originated. Gradually, in ancient science, the idea was recognized that not only bodily functions, but also the mental characteristics of people are an expression of their temperament, i.e. depend on the proportion in which the main "juices" are mixed in the body. Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen, who lived in the II century. BC, for the first time gave a detailed classification of different types of temperament. Subsequently, representatives of ancient medicine reduced the number of types of temperament to four. Each of them was characterized by the predominance of any one liquid.
The mixing of fluids in the body, characterized by a predominance of blood, was called sanguine temperament (from the Latin word "sanguis" - blood); confusion, in which lymph prevails, - phlegmatic temperament (from the Greek word "phlegm" - mucus); mixing with a predominance of yellow bile - choleric temperament (from the Greek word "chole" - bile) and, finally, mixing with a predominance of black bile - melancholic temperament (from the Greek words "melaina chole" - black bile).
These names for temperaments have survived to this day, but the old ideas about the organic basis of psychological differences between people are now primarily of historical interest.
Over the centuries that have passed since the times of ancient science, various new hypotheses have been put forward, seeking to explain the reason for the differences in the dynamic manifestations of the psyche. In the history of the study of this problem, three main systems of views can be distinguished. The oldest of them, as we already know, connects the cause of individual differences with the role of certain body fluids. These humoral theories (from the Latin humor - moisture, juice) include ideas about the special meaning of blood that have become widespread in modern times.
Thus, the German philosopher I. Kant (late 18th century), who contributed to the systematization of psychological ideas about temperaments, believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of blood. Close to this point of view is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Russian pedagogue, anatomist and doctor P.F. Lesgaft, who wrote (at the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries) that the manifestations of temperament are ultimately based on the properties of the circulatory system, in particular, the thickness and the elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, the diameter of their lumen, the structure and shape of the heart, etc., which is associated with the speed and strength of blood flow and, as a result, a measure of the body's excitability and the duration of reactions in response to various stimuli. Long-standing ideas about the significance of body fluids have been partially confirmed in modern endocrinological studies, which have shown that such properties of the psyche as one or another dynamics of reactivity, sensitivity, emotional balance, largely depend on individual differences in the functioning of the hormonal system.
At the turn of the XIX - early XX centuries. the so-called somatic concept was formed, according to which there is a connection between the properties of temperament and physique. The works of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer (20s of our century), which substantiate the idea that differences in the types of body structure (some features of growth, fullness, proportions of body parts), indicate certain differences in temperament, are widely known. American scientist W. Sheldon (40s of our century) also spoke about the direct relationship between bodily characteristics and temperament characteristics. Somatic theories should not be excessively opposed to humoral ones: both the type of body structure and the dynamic properties of the psyche can be the result of the same reason - the result of the action of hormones secreted by the endocrine glands.
In parallel with the ideas about humoral, and then thematic sources of differences in temperament, ideas developed (starting from the middle of the 18th century), which received more and more complete evidence-based substantiation, about the importance of excitability and sensitivity of nerves for the dynamic features of the psyche. The most important milestone on this path was the appeal of I.P. Pavlova to the study of the properties of the brain, an organ of the psyche. The great physiologist developed (in the 20-30s of our century) the doctrine of the types of the nervous system, or, which is the same, types of higher nervous activity. I.P. Pavlov identified three main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes.
The strength of the nervous system - the most important indicator of the type: the performance of the cells of the cortex, their endurance depends on this property. Another indicator is also important - mobility of nervous processes: it was found that there are very large individual differences in the speed with which one nervous process is replaced by another. A very significant indicator and balance of the nervous system: it is known, for example, that often the inhibitory process lags behind the excitatory process in strength, the degree of balance between them is different. One or another combination of these properties is the type of the nervous system.
Some of the combinations of properties of the type that are found more often than others or are most pronounced, and can, according to I.P. Pavlov, to serve as an explanation for the classification of temperaments, which has been known since ancient times. Namely: sanguinematches temperament strong balanced fasttype of the nervous system, phlegmatic temperament - a strong balanced slow type, choleric - a strong unbalanced type, melancholic - a weak type of the nervous system.
The approach to differences in the dynamic side of the psyche from the side of the properties of the type of the nervous system marked the beginning of a new stage in the study of the physiological foundations of temperament. In the works of psychologists B.M. Teplova, V.D. Nebylitsyn (50s - 60s), ideas about the properties of the type of human higher nervous activity were refined and enriched. New properties of the nervous system were discovered. One of them is lability (the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process depends on this property, in contrast to mobility, which characterizes the rapidity of the replacement of one process by another). It is in the functional features of the brain, its cortex and subcortex, in the properties of types of nervous activity (regulating the accumulation and expenditure of energy) that modern science sees the reasons for individual differences in temperament (studies by V.S.Merlin, J.Strelyu, etc.). At the same time, in recent years, the point of view has become widespread, according to which the general constitution of the organism (covering the biological foundations of the psyche of different levels) lies at the basis of temperament, while the cerebral mechanisms have a particularly significant place (VM Rusalov).
General activity and emotionality as a side of temperament.General mental activity is central to the characterization of temperament. This does not mean the content of activity, not its direction, but precisely its dynamic features, the very energy level of behavior. The differences between people in this respect are very great. The degree of activity ranges from lethargy, inertia at one pole to violent manifestations of energy at the other.
Differences in activity related to temperament appear mainly in the following forms: the severity of the need itself, the urge to be active (the desire to continue the activity begun; the force of pressure, the energy of the actions performed; endurance in relation to the tension associated with activity); the variety of actions performed, the tendency to vary them; speed characteristics of reactions and movements (their pace, its growth and decay, sharpness and impetuosity or slowness of movements).
It was found that the dynamic manifestations of activity are in a certain way determined by the properties of the type of the nervous system. Thus, the intensity and stability of activity significantly depend on the strength of the nervous system, and the variability of activity and some of its speed characteristics - on mobility and lability. In other studies, it was shown that mental activity as a feature of temperament directly depends on a special property of the nervous system - activation (data by E.A. Golubeva).
Of great interest are the results of studies that showed that weakness of the type of the nervous system means not only a lack of strength, low endurance, but also increased sensitivity, reactivity, i.e. the readiness to respond to minor stimuli (the weaker nervous system gets tired faster, depleted, because it is relatively easier to be excited). And reactivity is also one of the types of activity. In this respect, individuals with a weak nervous system have their own special prerequisites for manifestations of activity. On the basis of reactivity (within the limits of the endurance of the nervous system), rapidly emerging, inventive forms of activity can develop.
Attention should be paid to the fact that the features of general mental activity are noticeably prominent in speech and motor features, in handwriting. The tempo and rhythm of oral speech, movements when writing can tell a lot about this side of temperament. However, as well as about his other side - emotionality.
Dynamic differences in emotionality are manifested in the degree of impressionability (it is easy to find that for some people the smallest reason is enough to elicit an emotional reaction, while others require increased exposure for this), in impulsiveness (this term denotes the speed with which an emotion becomes stimulating the power of actions, without preliminary thinking and making a decision to carry them out), in emotional lability (meaning the speed with which the emotional state stops or one experience changes to another).
Thus, in the dynamic features of the psyche, both the features of aspirations, actions, and experiences are revealed. The sphere of manifestations of temperament is general mental activity and emotionality.
Types of temperaments... Until now, the main types of temperament are the same four that were distinguished by ancient science: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic. The idea of \u200b\u200b\\ u200b \\ u200bwhat a person's temperament is is usually formed on the basis of some psychological characteristics characteristic of a given person. A person with noticeable mental activity, quickly responding to surrounding events, striving for frequent change
impressions, relatively easily experiencing setbacks and troubles, lively, agile, with expressive facial expressions and movements is called a sanguine person. A person who is imperturbable, with stable aspirations and mood, with constancy and depth of feelings, with uniformity of actions and speech, with a weak external expression of mental states is called a phlegmatic. A person who is very energetic, capable of giving himself up to business with special passion, quick and impetuous, prone to violent emotional outbursts and sudden changes in mood, with rapid movements is called a choleric. An impressionable person, with deep feelings, easily injured, but outwardly weakly reacting to the environment, with
restrained movements and muffled speech are called melancholic. Each type of temperament has its own ratio of mental properties, primarily a different degree of activity and emotionality, as well as certain features of motor skills. A certain structure of dynamic manifestations characterizes the type of temperament.
It is clear that not all people can be classified into four types. The question of the variety of temperaments is not yet finally decided in science. But the named types are considered to be the most typical. In life, quite often there are people who can be attributed to one or another of these types.
Extroverts and introverts. In psychology, the classification of temperaments has received some recognition, based on taking into account such psychological characteristics, which are denoted by the terms extraversion, introversion (these concepts were introduced into psychology by the Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist C. Jung in the first quarter of our century). For people extroverted typecharacterized by focus on the outside world, craving for new impressions, impulsivity, sociability, increased motor and speech activity. For introverted typeare characterized by the fixation of interests on their inner world, a tendency to introspection, difficulty in social adaptation, isolation, some inhibition of movements and speech. Note that in fact, only the dynamic aspect of those psychological traits that distinguish these types can be attributed to temperament.
In the future, differences in extraversion-introversion, as well as differences in emotional stability (where at one pole - constancy of moods, self-confidence, high resistance to negative influences, and at the other pole - a sharp change in mood, resentment, irritability, denoted by the words "level of anxiety ») Were studied in connection with the differences in the properties of the nervous system (studies by the English psychologist G. Eysenck). It was found, in particular, that signs of extraversion, like signs of emotional stability, are based on a less reactive nervous system, while signs of introversion, like emotional anxiety, are an expression of higher reactivity. It turned out that extraversion and introversion, emotional stability and high anxiety can appear in different combinations. As a result, a new approach to the main types of temperament emerged: a combination of extraversion and emotional stability (phlegmatic), a combination of extraversion and emotional instability (choleric), a combination of introversion and emotional stability (phlegmatic), a combination of introversion and emotional instability (melancholic).
However, with such a combination of the two typologies, it turns out that in a choleric person emotional instability, and in a phlegmatic person, introversion collide with the characteristics of the strength of their nervous system. Apparently, the manifestations of reactivity may not coincide with the differences in the strength-weakness of the nervous system. The discrepancy between some of the initial data on the physiological bases of temperament indicates that the compared classifications took different grounds for dividing into types.
Let's take into account that the classification of types of temperament is largely conditional. In fact, there are many more types of temperament (as well as types of the nervous system) than four. Many people, although they are close in their individual manifestations to any of the basic types, still cannot be quite definitely attributed to this particular type. In the case when a person discovers features of different temperaments, they speak of a mixed type of temperament.
The complexity of drawing up a typology of temperament is also due to the fact that in the twentieth century it became known about the existence of mental characteristics, which, like the properties of temperament, are associated with hereditary predisposition and are characterized by high stability and typical manifestations in the widest range of situations. These properties were noticed and described in those cases when they manifested themselves most clearly and mainly from the negative side, which brought significant inconvenience either to their owners or to people around them. At first they were called psychopathies, and then, due to their high prevalence and the existence of less pronounced forms, - accentuations character.
K. Schneider (1930), P.B. Gannushkin (1933), K. Leonhard (1981), A.E. Lichko (1983) described about fifteen such types of behavior. Let us give a brief description of them.
Cyclothymic typecharacterized by a tendency to a sharp change in mood depending on the external situation.
For asthenic typecharacterized by anxiety, indecision, fatigue, irritability, a tendency to depression.
TO schizoidsinclude fenced off, withdrawn people who have difficulties in establishing contacts.
Demonstrative typeare possessed by people with a pronounced tendency to displace facts and events unpleasant for the subject, to attract attention to themselves, and excessive emotionality.
Hyperthymic typecharacterized by a constantly upbeat mood, a thirst for activity with a tendency to scatter, not to bring the matter to the end.
Stuck typehas the following characteristics: increased irritability, persistence of negative affects, suspicion, increased ambition.
Of people excitable type described as having impulsive behavior, intolerance, conflict, viscous thinking, excessive thoroughness of speech.
The presence of characteristics common with temperament (a high degree of stability, connection with heredity) prompted researchers to look for common grounds for them. As a result, some of them (for example, V.G. Norakidze) began to consider the described types of behavior as a pathology of temperament, others (K.Leongard, G. Shmishek) divided them among themselves, referring some to temperament, others, respectively, to character accentuations. However, this division is made only on the basis of the intensity of the emotional impact on others, which in itself can be determined by the characteristics of physiological processes, which excludes their attribution to the sphere of character.
From our point of view, all these features should be attributed to the sphere of temperament. And their excessive visibility to others, most likely, is caused either by the inability or unwillingness to control them. In this case, the typology of temperament must be built taking into account all available types of behavior, united by such properties as typicality, high stability, connection with the physiology of the body and heredity.
Let us give an attempt at such a typology.
Theoretical provisions.
1. Typology consists of three subsystems: perception, isotonic rhythms of muscle contractions and isometric rhythms of intensity of muscle contractions.
Perception type - a property of temperament, which is formed mainly on the basis of the physiological characteristics of the work of that part of the nervous system that is most closely related to perception.
Isotonic rhythm - a property of temperament, associated mainly with the pattern (curve) of changes in the speed of movement during one motor cycle (turning the head, gesture, hand swing, step, change of posture, pronouncing a syllable, etc.).
Isometric rhythm- a property of temperament, formed on the basis of a pattern (curve) of changes in the effort of muscle contractions during one motor cycle.
2. Each subsystem is represented by a certain number of elements (symptom complexes).
3. All subsystems are built on the principle of mutually exclusive elements. Those. the presence of a certain element, for example, a subsystem of isometric rhythms, excludes the action of other elements of this subsystem.
4. The action of the subsystem is relatively independent of each other, i.e. any element, for example, subsystems of isometric rhythms, can be combined with any element of subsystems of isotonic rhythms and types of perception.
Perception types.
1. Cautive (from lat. cautus - cautious) type of perception, expressed in the strengthening of nonspecific perception, which is experienced as a constant feeling of anxiety (specific perception is weakened, as a result of which the spatial field of perception narrows and contact with the outside world is weakened). This property, apparently, underlies the description of types such as introverted (emotional coldness, lack of compassion, focus on the world of their experiences) schizoid(fenced off, closed, has difficulty in making contacts) psychasthenic (anxious, insecure, prone to constant thoughts and doubts) , dysthymic(extremely serious, responsible, focused on the dark and sad sides of life, has a tendency to depression, is not active enough) .
2. Agent (from Lat. agens - active) type of perception, characterized by an increase in the work of the analyzer zones, nonspecific perception is weakened. As a result, anxiety is significantly weakened, and the connection with the outside world, with the surrounding situation becomes very intense, which provides an automatic, spontaneous response to most external stimuli. The described property is probably to one degree or another presented as a characteristic extroverted (orientation of the personality to the world of external objects) type.
Isotonic rhythms.
1. Tolerant (from lat.tolerantia - patience, patience, endurance) isotonic rhythm... This dynamic feature is characterized by an economical waste of energy, increased emotional stability, slower muscle contractions, and a wide range of motion. This characteristic appears to be used to describe phlegmatictype of temperament and pedantic(difficulty making a decision, excessive obsessive accuracy) character accentuation.
2. Interactiveor interacting (from Latin inter - between and ago - set in motion) isotonic rhythmcharacterized by the fact that internal or external speech constantly accompanies the actions of the person who possesses it. Movement - fast, smooth, measured. The property provided is commonly used to describe sanguinetemperament.
3.Sensitive (from Latin sensitivus - sensitive) isotonic rhythmdefines increased emotional sensitivity, ease of generating emotions. Movement in the nature of "bursts", as if pulling away. The specified quality is used in the description melancholic temperament, as well as sensitive and anxious (shyness, shyness, a tendency to feel a sense of inferiority) character accentuations.
4. Mobilizing (from lat.mobilito - to set in motion) isotonic rhythmcauses a high frequency of reactions, suddenness, discontinuity, smallness, fragmentation, emphasis, intensity, as it were, emphasis in movements, actions and speech, a high frequency of spatial movements. This quality in one form or another is present in the description cholerictype of temperament.
Isometric rhythms.
1. Regent (from lat.rego - to manage) isometric rhythmpromotes the strengthening of emotional manifestations, as a result of which a constant readiness of the body is formed for great physical exertion, including the confrontation, which is often observed in behavior and in communication. This dynamics, especially when combined with mobilizing motor rhythm, presents particular difficulty in controlling one's behavior. If external and internal conditions do not contribute to the fact that a person learns to master it, then in behavior and emotions there is varying degrees of aggressiveness or even rudeness. However, a person can master this dynamic feature perfectly and then practically not one property of the characteristics excitableor epileptoid(insufficient controllability, impulsive behavior, intolerance, conflict, viscosity of thinking, excessive thoroughness of speech) type cannot be detected.
2. Educant (from lat.educo - to educate) isometric rhythmis uniformly moderately dominant, has a fairly intense energy component, and is also endowed with the property hold the individual on the object on which he is focused, which in the case of highly adaptive people contributes to the thoroughness of the work performed, its necessary completeness and completeness. If a person cannot successfully control this emotional property, then properties that we know from the description are likely to form. stuck or paranoid (increased irritability, persistence of negative affects, painful sensitivity, suspicion, increased ambition) character accentuation.
3. Ludotivny (from Latin ludo - to play) isometric rhythmpromotes the installation on a playful type of behavior, easy adaptation to the role, the desire to intrigue, be impressive, charming, etc. In the case of poor controllability, it results in demonstrativeor hysterical(a pronounced tendency to displace facts and events unpleasant for the subjects, to deceit, fantasizing and pretense used to attract attention, characterized by a lack of remorse, adventurousness, vanity, "flight into illness" with an unmet need for recognition) accentuation.
4. Twisted (from Latin scrutor - to explore) isometric rhythmcharacterized by a short emotional fixation, contributing to the constant movement of attention. This dynamic trait is commonly used to describe hyperthymic(constantly high spirits, thirst for activity with a tendency to be scattered, not to finish the job, increased talkativeness, a jump of thoughts) and cycloid (tendency to a sharp change in mood depending on the external situation) character accentuations.
5. Curative (from lat.cura - care) isometric rhythmin humans, it manifests itself in the form of a tendency to empathy, empathy, compassion, differs in softness and smoothness of emotional processes. In case of violations of adaptive capabilities in a person who possesses it, they talk about emotive(sensitivity, deep reactions in the field of subtle emotions, kindness, sincerity) accentuation of personality or character.
6. Timement (from lat.timeo - to fear, to fear) isometric rhythmorients the individual to the search for possible danger, is also characterized by ease and, often, subtlety of emotional manifestations, which creates the effect of their exaggeration. This dynamic characteristic can be compared exalted(the same ease of the appearance of states of delight from joyful events and despair from sad events, extreme impressionability about sad facts, pity, compassion) accentuation.
It is convenient to represent the general scheme of typology in the form of a parallelepiped, divided into 48 equal parts (types of temperament) (Fig. 1). The top edge of each part means a certain type of perception. The front face is an isometric rhythm. Lateral, respectively - isotonic rhythm.
Character.
Living in society, a person acquires certain properties that leave a certain imprint on all its manifestations and express a specific attitude for him towards the world and, above all, towards other people. Translated from Greek, the character means "chasing", "seal".
The character is called a set of stable individual personality traits, which develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing typical ways of behavior for an individual.
A person's personality is characterized not only by what he does, but also by how he does. Acting on the basis of common interests and beliefs shared by all, striving in life for common goals, people can reveal in their behavior, in their actions and deeds, not the same, sometimes opposite features. Along with other people, you can experience the same difficulties, perform your duties with equal success, love or not love the same thing, but at the same time be gentle, compliant or tough, intolerant person, cheerful or sad, confident or timid, accommodating or quarrelsome ... Critical remarks of the same meaning are always made by one person in a soft, polite, benevolent form, while by another - rude and unceremonious. With striking differences in outlooks on life, a mismatch of interests and cultural level, and different moral principles, these fixed individual characteristics, as a rule, are even more pronounced.
Individual characteristics that form a person's character relate primarily to will (for example, decisiveness or uncertainty, fearfulness) and feelings (for example, cheerfulness or depression), but to a certain extent also to the mind (for example, frivolity or thoughtfulness). However, manifestations of character are complex formations and in some cases practically do not lend themselves to separation according to the categories of volitional, emotional or intellectual processes (for example, suspicion, generosity, generosity, rancor, etc.).
Character structure.The character of the human person is always multifaceted. In it, individual traits or sides can be distinguished, which, however, do not exist in isolation, separately from each other, but are connected together, forming a more or less integral character structure.
The structure of character is found in the natural relationship between its individual traits. If a person is cowardly, there is reason to believe that he will not have initiative (fearing an unfavorable turnover of the proposal or action initiated by him), decisiveness and independence (making a decision implies personal responsibility), dedication and generosity (helping another may somehow infringe on his own interests, which is dangerous for him). At the same time, from a person who is cowardly in character, one can expect humiliation and obsequiousness (in relation to the strong), conformity (not to be a "black sheep"), greed (to insure himself materially for the future), readiness for betrayal (in any case , under extreme circumstances that threaten his safety), mistrust and caution ("belikovskoe" - according to A.P. Chekhov - "no matter how something happens"), etc. Of course, not every person whose character is dominated by cowardice will demonstrate a character structure similar to that described above, including all of the listed traits. In different life circumstances, it can be significantly transformed and can even include qualities that seem to be opposite to the dominant ones (for example, a coward can be arrogant). However, the general tendency towards the manifestation of just such a complex of character traits for a cowardly person will prevail.
Among the character traits, some act as the main, leading ones, setting a general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations. Along with them, there are secondary features, which in some cases are determined by the main ones, and in others they may not be in harmony with them. In life, there are more whole characters and more contradictory ones. The existence of integral characters makes it possible, among the enormous variety of characters, to single out certain types of them, endowed with common features.
Character traits cannot be identified with beliefs, outlook on life and other personality traits. One good-natured and cheerful person can be highly moral and decent, while the other is also good-natured and cheerful - but at the same time he does not disdain any, including unscrupulous, actions to achieve his goals.
Personality traits and relationships.Manifesting in actions and deeds, in the extent to which the subject is actively involved in joint activities , the character turns out to be dependent both on the content of the activity and on the successful or unsuccessful overcoming of difficulties, on the distant or short-term prospects in achieving the main life goals.
In this case, the character depends on how a person relates (on the basis of his previously established characteristics) to his failures and successes, to public opinion and a number of other circumstances. So, people who study in the same class of school or work on an equal position in the same team acquire different character traits depending on whether they are coping with the case. Success inspires some and encourages them to work or learn even better, others tend to “rest on their laurels”; for some, failure oppresses, in others it awakens a "fighting spirit."
Thus, the most important moment in the formation of character is how a person relates to the environment and to himself as another. These relationships are at the same time the basis for the classification of the most important character traits.
The character of a person is manifested, firstly, in how he treats other people: relatives and friends, comrades at work and study, acquaintances and little acquaintances, etc. Stable and unstable affection, adherence to principles and lack of principle, sociability and isolation, truthfulness and deceit, tact and rudeness reveal a person's attitude to other people.
Secondly, the attitude of a person to himself is indicative of character: self-esteem and self-esteem or humiliation and lack of confidence in his abilities. For some people, selfishness and egocentrism (placing oneself at the center of all events) come to the fore, while for others, selflessness in the struggle for a common cause.
Third, character is revealed in a person's attitude to business. So, among the most valuable character traits are conscientiousness and diligence, seriousness, enthusiasm, responsibility for the assigned work and concern with its results.
Fourthly, character is manifested in a person's attitude to things: not only attitude towards property in general, but also careful or careless handling of their things, with clothes, shoes, books, teaching aids, etc.
Abilities.
Abilities- these are psychological characteristics of a person, on which the success of acquiring knowledge, skills, and abilities depends, but which themselves are not reduced to the presence of this knowledge, skills and abilities.
Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, a person's abilities act as a certain possibility. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only an opportunity in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only if the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. will be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for the acquisition of knowledge and skills. And whether or not this knowledge and skills will be acquired, whether the opportunity will turn into reality, depends on many conditions. The conditions include, for example, the following: will the people around them (in the family, school, work collective) be interested in the person mastering this knowledge and skills: how he will be taught, how will work activities be organized, in which these skills and skills will be needed and consolidated, etc.
Psychology, denying the identity of abilities and essential components of activity - knowledge, skills and abilities, emphasizes their unity. Abilities are found only in activities that cannot be carried out without the presence of these abilities. It is impossible to talk about a person's ability to draw if they did not try to teach him to draw, if he did not acquire any skills necessary for graphic activity. Only in the process of special training in drawing and painting can it be found out whether the student has the ability. This will be revealed in how quickly and easily he learns the techniques of work, color relationships, learns to see the beauty in the world around him.
In what way is the unity of abilities expressed, on the one hand, and skills, knowledge and skills, on the other? Abilities are found not in knowledge, skills and abilities as such, but in the dynamics of their acquisition, i.e. in how, other things being equal, the process of mastering knowledge and skills that are essential for this activity is carried out quickly, deeply, easily and firmly.
Qualitative characteristics of abilities. Considered from the point of view of their qualitative characteristics, abilities appear as a complex complex of psychological properties of a person that ensure the success of an activity, as a set of "variables" that allow one to go to the goal in different ways.
The basis of the same or somewhat similar achievements in performing any activity can be based on combinations of very different abilities. This opens up before us an important side of the personality's ability: ample opportunities compensation some properties by others, which a person develops in himself, working hard and persistently.
The property of compensating for some abilities with the help of the development of others opens up inexhaustible opportunities for each person, pushing the boundaries of choosing a profession and improving in it.
In general, the qualitative characteristic of abilities allows us to answer the question in which sphere of labor activity (design, pedagogical, economic, sports, etc.) it is easier for a person to find himself, to find great successes and achievements. Thus, the qualitative characteristic of abilities is inextricably linked with the quantitative characteristic. Having found out which specific psychological qualities meet the requirements of a given activity, one can answer the question, to a greater or lesser extent, they are developed in a person in comparison with his comrades in work and study.
Quantitative characteristics of abilities... The problem of quantifying abilities has a long history in psychology. Even at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. a number of psychologists ( Cattel, Theremin, Spearman and others) under the influence of the requirements caused by the need to carry out professional selection for mass specialties, made a proposal to identify the level of students' abilities. Thus, it was assumed that the rank place of the individual and its suitability for one or another labor activity, for training in higher educational institutions, for obtaining command posts in production, the army and social life would be established.
At the same time, they began to use as a way to measure abilities intelligence tests... With their help, in a number of countries (USA, Great Britain, etc.), abilities are determined and students are sorted in schools, the replacement of officer posts in the army, leadership positions in industry, etc. In the UK, for example, the test results are used to enroll in the so-called grammar schools, which give the right to enter the university.
In terms of content, tests of mental giftedness are a series of questions or problems, the success of the solution of which (taking into account the time spent) is calculated in the sum of points or points. At the end of the test, the sum of points scored by each subject is calculated. This makes it possible to determine the so-called intelligence quotient (IQ). The determination is based on the fact, for example, that the average score for children of eleven and a half years should be close to 120. Hence, it is concluded that any child who scored 120 points has a mental age of eleven and a half years. On this basis, the coefficient of mental giftedness is calculated:
IQ \u003d mental age x 100 / child's actual age.
If, for example, as a result of testing the same sum of points (120) were scored by two children (ten and a half and fourteen years) and, thus, the mental age of each would be equal to eleven and a half years, then the coefficient of mental giftedness of children would be computed like this:
IQ of the first child \u003d 11.5 x 100 / 10.5 \u003d 109.5;
IQ of the second child \u003d 11.5 x 100/14 \u003d 82.1.
The coefficient of mental giftedness reveals a quantitative characteristic of abilities, supposedly some unchanging, all-round mental giftedness, or general intelligence.
However, scientific psychological analysis reveals that this
Lecture 12. Individual personality traits
Many seemingly very different personality traits are linked by relatively stable dependencies into certain dynamic structures. This is especially clearly manifested in the character of a person.
Character is a pivotal mental property of a person, which leaves an imprint on all his actions and deeds, a property on which, first of all, a person's activity depends in various life situations.
In other words, giving a definition of character, we can say that it is a set of personality traits that determines the typical ways of her response to life circumstances.
Character should be understood not as any individual psychological characteristics of a person, but only a set of the most pronounced and relatively stable personality traits typical for a given person and systematically manifested in his actions and deeds.
In the opinion of B. G. Ananyev, character "expresses the main life orientation and manifests itself in a way of action that is peculiar to a given personality." The word "character" in translation from Greek means "sign", "feature".
Very often the character is understood as something that almost coincides with the personality or differs from the personality according to the criterion that everything that is individual belongs to the character, and the personality is only general. We had such views in the 40s, 50s and 60s. In fact, of course, this is not the case. There is such a comic typology that BS Bratus cites in one of his books: "A good person with a good character, a good person with a bad character, a bad person with a good character and a bad person with a bad character." From the point of view of common sense, this typology corresponds to reality, it works. This suggests, first of all, that personality and character are not the same thing, they do not coincide.
In character, a person is characterized not only by what she does, but also by how she does it.
It is no coincidence that the words "characteristic" and "character" have a common root. A well-composed psychological characteristic of a person, first of all and most deeply, should reveal his character, since it is in him that personality traits are most significantly manifested. However, it is impossible, as is sometimes done, to replace all personality traits only with character traits. The concept of "personality" is broader than the concept of "character", and the concept of "individuality of a person as a person" is not limited to his character.
In psychology, a person is distinguished in the wide and narrow sense of the word, and the character is outside the personality in the narrow sense of the word. Character is understood as such characteristics of a person that describe the ways of his behavior in different situations. In relation to character, concepts such as "expressive characteristics" (characteristics of external manifestation, external expression of a person) or "stylistic characteristics" are used. In general, the concept of "style" is quite close in its essence to the concept of "character", but more on that later.
A remarkable illustration of this relationship between personality and character is Henry Kuttner's little fantasy story The Mechanical Ego. The hero of the story is an American writer and screenwriter of the 50s. XX century - is preoccupied with clarifying relations with his employers, with his girlfriend and at the same time a literary agent defending his interests, as well as a number of other problems. Suddenly, a robot arrives from the future, which traveled in time and filmed and recorded "character matrices" from interesting figures of different times and peoples. The hero manages to "drink" this robot with the help of high-frequency current and persuade him to impose some matrices on it. Further, the hero goes out several times and communicates with different people, first imposing the matrices of the character of Disraeli, an English aristocrat and politician of the last century, then Tsar Ivan the Terrible, and, finally, Mamontoboy from the Stone Age. It is interesting to see what changes and what remains unchanged when changing matrices. The hero's goals, his aspirations, his desires, his values \u200b\u200bremain unchanged. He strives for the same thing, but acts in different ways, showing in one case the refinement and cunning of Disraeli, in the other case - the directness and aggressiveness of Mamontoboy, etc.
Thus, the difference between character and personality in the narrow sense of the word lies in the fact that the character includes features related to the mode of behavior, to the forms in which the same behavior can be clothed in content.
Each person differs from others in a huge, truly inexhaustible number of individual characteristics, that is, characteristics inherent in him as an individual. The concept of "individual characteristics" includes not only psychological, but also somatic ("soma" - Latin for "body") features of a person: eye and hair color, height and figure, development of the skeleton and muscles, etc.
An important individual feature of a person is the expression on his face. In it, not only somatic, but also psychological characteristics of a person are manifested. When they say about a person: “he has a meaningful expression on his face, or“ he has cunning eyes, ”or“ stubborn mouth, ”they mean, of course, not an anatomical feature, but the expression in facial expressions of the psychological characteristics peculiar to this individual.
Individual psychological characteristics distinguish one person from another. The branch of psychological science that studies the individual characteristics of various aspects of personality and mental processes is called differential psychology.
The most general dynamic structure of personality is the generalization of all its possible individual psychological characteristics into four groups, which form four main aspects of personality:
1. Biologically determined characteristics (temperament, inclinations, basic needs).
2. Socially determined features (orientation, moral qualities, worldview).
3. Individual characteristics of various mental processes.
4. Experience (volume and quality of existing knowledge, skills, abilities and habits).
Not all individual psychological characteristics of these sides of the personality will be character traits. But all character traits, of course, are personality traits.
First of all, it must be said about the fundamental differences between character traits and general traits, which were discussed above.
First, character is only one of the substructures of the personality, and the substructure is subordinate. A developed mature personality has good command of his character and is able to control its manifestations. On the contrary, character breakthroughs, when a person acts directly according to the logic of what certain character traits induce him to do, are typical, say, of psychopaths. Adults are meant. As for childhood and adolescence, this is a special conversation.
Thus, the character takes a subordinate position, and the actual manifestations of character depend on what motives and goals these manifestations serve in a particular case. That is, character traits are not something that acts on its own, manifests itself in all situations.
Secondly, the essence of those traits that make up character can be clarified through the mechanisms of character formation. Before talking about these mechanisms, let's fix the main myths that exist in relation to the character:
1) the character is biologically determined, and nothing can be done about it;
2) the character is fully educated, any character can be formed at will with a specially organized system of influences;
3) there is such a very serious thing as national character, that is, there are very different character structures inherent in different nations, which significantly affect the individual character of all representatives of a given nation.
Every myth has a grain of truth, but only a grain. There are really certain things in the character that are associated with biological factors. The biological basis of character is the temperament that we really get from birth, and we have to live with it.
The character also has, so to speak, a macrosocial basis. There is also some truth in the myth of the national character. There is a lot of controversy in the literature about the national character. The main problem was posed as follows: is there a national character or not? It turned out very clearly that there are at least very strong stereotypes regarding the national character, that is, that representatives of some nations demonstrate rather persistent beliefs in the existence of certain sets of traits in other nations. Moreover, these stereotypes in the perception of another nation directly depend on how this nation "behaves". For example, a few years ago in West Germany, studies were conducted on the attitude towards the French. Two surveys were conducted with an interval of 2 years, but over these 2 years, relations between Germany and France have noticeably deteriorated. In the second survey, the number of people who named frivolity and nationalism among the characteristic features of the French sharply increased, and the number of those who ascribed such positive qualities as charm and courtesy to the French sharply decreased.
Are there real differences between nations? Yes there is. But it turned out that, firstly, differences are always distinguished by a small number of features in comparison with those features for which the similarity prevails, and, secondly, that differences between different people within the same nation are much greater than stable differences between nations. Therefore, the verdict passed by the American psychologist T. Shibutani is fair: "The national character, despite the various forms of its study, is in many ways similar to a respectable ethnic stereotype, acceptable primarily for those who are not familiar enough with the people in question."
In fact, the idea of \u200b\u200ba national character is a form of manifestation of the very typological thinking that has already been mentioned. Certain minimal differences that actually exist (for example, the temperament of southern peoples) and which are less significant than similarity are taken as the basis for a certain type. Typological thinking, as already mentioned, is distinguished, first of all, by its categorical nature (either one or the other), by the absence of gradations, by highlighting something private and inflating it by ignoring everything else. Thus, an ideological monster appears under the sonorous title of "national character".
There is also a so-called social character, that is, some invariant character traits inherent in certain social groups. It used to be fashionable in our country to talk about the class character, and there really is some reality behind it. It was also fashionable to talk about some characterological characteristics of bureaucrats, managers, etc. Behind this, there is also a certain reality associated with the fact that character is formed in the real life of a person, and to the extent of the generality of those conditions in which representatives of some and the same classes, social groups, etc., some common traits of character are formed in them. After all, the character plays the role of a kind of shock absorber, a kind of buffer between the personality and the environment, therefore it is largely determined by this environment. In many ways, but not in all. The main thing depends on the personality. If the personality is aimed at adaptation, adaptation to the world, then the character helps to do this. If, on the contrary, the personality is aimed at overcoming the environment or at transforming it, then the character helps her to overcome the environment or transform it.
According to the observations of E. R. Kaliteevskaya, adaptability and the absence of roughness, difficulties in the so-called "difficult age" fixes the adaptive character and then leads to the fact that a person experiences many difficulties in life. And vice versa, outwardly violent manifestations of "difficult age" help a person to form certain elements of independence, self-determination, which will give him the opportunity to live normally in the future, actively influence reality, and not only adapt to it.
At the same time, character cannot be viewed as a simple sum of individual qualities or personality traits. Some of his features will always be leading; it is by them that one can characterize a person, otherwise the task of understanding character would be impossible, since each individual has a large number of individual characteristic features, and the number of shades of each of these features is even greater. For example, neatness can have shades: punctuality, pedantry, cleanliness, smartness, etc.
Individual character traits are classified much more easily and clearly than character types in general.
A character trait is understood as those or other features of a person's personality, which are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions in certain conditions.
BM Teplov proposed to divide character traits into several groups.
The first group includes the most general character traits that form the main mental makeup of the personality. These include: adherence to principles, purposefulness, honesty, courage, etc. It is clear that the opposite, that is, negative, qualities can appear in character traits, for example: lack of principle, passivity, deceit, etc.
The second group is made up of character traits, which express a person's attitude towards other people. This is sociability, which can be broad and superficial or selective and the opposite feature is isolation, which can be the result of indifference to people or distrust of them, but can be the result of deep inner concentration; frankness and its opposite - secrecy; sensitivity, tact, responsiveness, fairness, solicitude, politeness, or, on the contrary, rudeness.
The third group of character traits expresses a person's attitude towards himself. Such are self-esteem, pride, correctly understood and the associated self-criticism, modesty and the opposite - vanity, arrogance, self-importance, sometimes turning into arrogance, resentment, shyness, egocentrism (the tendency to constantly be in the center of attention along with one's feelings), selfishness ( concern mainly about their personal welfare), etc.
The fourth group of character traits expresses a person's attitude to work, his work. This includes initiative, persistence, hard work and the opposite - laziness; the desire to overcome difficulties and the opposite to it - the fear of difficulties; activity, conscientiousness, accuracy, etc.
In relation to work, characters are divided into two groups: active and inactive. For the first group, activity, determination, persistence are typical; for the second - passivity, contemplation. But sometimes the inactivity of character is explained (but by no means justified) by the deep inner contradictions of a person who has not yet "decided", has not found his place in life, in a team.
The brighter and stronger a person's character, the more definite his behavior and the more clearly his individuality appears in various actions. However, not all people have their actions and deeds determined by their inherent personal characteristics. The behavior of some people depends on external circumstances, on the good or bad influence of comrades on them, on the passive and lack of initiative in fulfilling individual instructions of leaders and superiors. Such employees are spoken of as spineless.
Character cannot be considered an independent, as it were, the fifth side of the overall dynamic structure of the personality. Character is a combination of internally interrelated, the most important individual aspects of a personality, characteristics that determine a person's activity as a member of society. Character is a personality in the originality of its activity. This is his closeness with abilities (we will consider them in the next lecture), which also represent a personality, but in its productivity.
In conclusion of the conversation about the essence of such an important category in the structure of personality, which is character, and before proceeding to consider the classification of characters, I would like to talk about two variants of disharmonious relationships between character and personality, illustrating them with examples of two Russian autocrats taken from works the remarkable Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky.
The first of these examples - the subordination of personality to character, uncontrollable character - is illustrated by the description of Paul I.
"Character<…> benevolent and magnanimous, inclined to forgive offenses, ready to repent of mistakes, lover of truth, hater of lies and deceit, caring about justice, persecutor of any abuse of power, especially covetousness and bribery. Unfortunately, all these good qualities became completely useless both for him and for the state due to the complete lack of measure, extreme irritability and impatient demands of unconditional obedience.<…> Considering himself always right, he stubbornly adhered to his opinions and was so irritable with the slightest contradiction that he often seemed completely beside himself. I realized this myself and was deeply saddened by this, but did not have enough will to defeat myself. "
The second example is the absence of personality, its substitution with character, that is, the presence of developed forms of external manifestation in the absence of internal content - Empress Catherine II.
“She was capable of exertion, of strenuous and even unbearable work; therefore, to herself and to others she seemed stronger than herself. But she worked more on her manners, on the way of dealing with people, than on herself, on her thoughts and feelings; therefore her manners and treatment of people were better than her feelings and thoughts. In her mind there was more flexibility and receptivity than depth and thoughtfulness, more bearing than creativity, as in all her nature there was more nervous liveliness than spiritual strength. She loved more. and knew how to manage people than affairs.<…> In your friendly letters<…> it seems to be playing a well-learned role and with feigned playfulness, with pretended wit, it tries in vain to cover up the emptiness of the content and the tension of presentation. We meet the same features in her treatment of people as in her activities. In whatever society she moved, whatever she did, she always felt as if she were on stage, so she did too much for show. She herself admitted that she loved to be in public. The atmosphere and impression of the case were more important to her than the case itself and its consequences; therefore, her mode of action was above the promptings that inspired them; therefore, she cared more about popularity than about utility, her energy was supported not so much by the interests of the business as by the attention of people. Whatever she thought, she thought more about what they would say about her than about what would come of the planned case. She valued the attention of her contemporaries more than the opinion of her offspring ... She had more popularity than love for people, and in her work there was more brilliance, effect than greatness, creativity. She will be remembered for longer than her deeds. "
Probably, no one needs to be convinced of how important it is to understand the characters of the people with whom you meet every day - be it your relatives or employees. Meanwhile, our idea of \u200b\u200bthe types of characters is sometimes extremely abstract. We often make mistakes in assessing the person we are interested in. Sometimes you have to pay dearly for such mistakes: after all, it may be a mistake in choosing a friend, assistant, employee, spouse, etc. The fact is that we, poorly orienting ourselves in characters, sometimes do not notice the best features of others. We pass by that valuable thing in a person, we do not know how to help him open up.
Man as a person, of course, is not reducible to character. Personality is determined, first of all, by the social activity that it performs. A person has social orientations, ideals, attitude to others and to various aspects of life, knowledge, skills, abilities, level of their development, temperament. Personalities are characterized by harmonious development as a whole, learning ability, flexibility of behavior, the ability to reorganize, the ability to solve organizational issues, etc. However, characterological traits are essential for understanding the personality. The brighter the character, the more it leaves an imprint on the personality, the more it affects behavior.
Numerous attempts to classify character types as a whole (and not individual traits) have so far been unsuccessful. In addition to the variety and versatility of characterological qualities, the variety of the proposed classifications is also explained by the difference in features that can be used as their basis.
The ancient Greek philosopher and physician Theophrastus (372–287 BC) in his treatise "Ethical Characters" described 31 characters: flatterer, chatterbox, braggart, etc. He understood character as an imprint in the personality of the moral life of society.
The French moralist La Bruyere (1645-1696) gave 1,120 such characteristics, dividing his essay into a number of chapters: the city, about the capital, about the nobles, etc. He, like Theophrastus, in his characteristics revealed the inner essence of man through his deeds ... For example, he wrote: "Rogues tend to think of others as cheats; they are almost impossible to deceive, but they do not deceive for long."
From Aristotle comes the identification of character with volitional personality traits, and hence the division of character into strong and weak in terms of the expression of volitional traits in it. It is more correct to understand a strong character as the correspondence of a person's behavior to his worldview and beliefs. A person with a strong character is a reliable person. Knowing his beliefs, you can always foresee how he will act in a certain situation. It is about such a person that they say: "This one will not fail." It is impossible to say in advance about a weak-willed person how he will act in a given situation.
Another example of the classification of characters is an attempt to subdivide them into intellectual, emotional and volitional (Ben, 1818-1903). Until now, one can hear the characteristics: "This is a man of pure reason", or: "He lives in the mood of the day." Attempts were made to divide characters into only two groups: sensitive and volitional (Ribot, 1839-1916) or into extroverted (directed at external objects) and introverted (directed at their own thoughts and experiences) - Jung (1875-1961). Russian psychologist A. I. Galich (1783–1848) divided characters into bad, kind and great. There have been attempts to give more complex character classifications.
The most widespread division of characters according to their social value. This assessment is sometimes expressed by the word "good" character (and, in contrast, "bad"),
It is also widespread in everyday life to divide characters into light (characteristic of livable, pleasant people around and easily finding contact with people) and heavy.
Some authors (Lombroso, Kretschmer) tried to connect not only temperament, but also character with the constitution of a person, understanding by the latter the features of the structure of the body that are characteristic of a person in a given rather long period of time.
In recent years, in practical psychology, mainly thanks to the efforts of K. Leonhard (Humboldt University of Berlin) and A.E. Lichko (V.M.Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute), ideas about the most striking (so-called accentuated) characters have been formed , which are very interesting and useful for practice, including can be taken into account in the organization of production activities. Some stable combinations of character traits were noticed, and it turned out that such combinations are not endless, but a little more than a dozen. Currently, there is no uniform classification of characters. The state of affairs in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge can be compared with the state of affairs in the description of chemical elements before the creation of the periodic system by D.I.Mendeleev. However, it can be noted that many ideas are well established.
Each of the bright characters with varying degrees of severity occurs on average in 5-6% of cases. Thus, at least half of all employees have bright (accentuated) characters. In some cases, there are combinations of types of characters. The rest can be conditionally referred to the "average" type.
Below we will focus on the most striking characters. Take a closer look at the people around you. Perhaps the proposed recommendations will help you understand them, develop the correct line of communication and interaction with them. However, you should not get carried away with the formulation of psychological diagnoses. Each person in certain situations can show the features of almost all characters. However, the character is determined not by what happens "sometimes", but by the stability of the manifestation of traits in many situations, the degree of their severity and the ratio. So.
HYPERTENSIVE (OR HYPERACTIVE) CHARACTER
Optimism leads such a person sometimes to the fact that he begins to praise himself, setting out the "natural theory of generational change" and prophesying high positions for himself. A good mood helps him to overcome difficulties, which he always looks at with ease, as temporary, passing. Voluntarily engaged in social work, seeks to confirm his high self-esteem in everything. This is the hyperthymic character. If there is a person with a hypertimal character in the team you are leading, then the worst thing you can do is entrust him with painstaking, monotonous work that requires perseverance, limit contacts, and deprive him of the opportunity to take initiative. Such a worker is unlikely to be useful. He will violently resent the "boredom" of work and neglect duties. However, the discontent arising in these cases is of a benign nature. Having escaped from conditions unacceptable for him, hypertim, as a rule, does not hold any grudge against others. Create conditions for the manifestation of initiative - and you will see how brightly the personality will reveal itself, the work will boil in his hands. It is better to place hypertime in production areas where contacts with people are required: they are indispensable in organizing labor, in creating a climate of goodwill in the team.
Disorders of adaptation and health in hyperthymes are usually associated with the fact that they do not spare themselves. They take on a lot, try to do everything in time, run, rush, excited, often express a high level of claims, etc. They seem to think that all problems can be solved by increasing the pace of activity.
The main recommendation for people with a hyperthymic type of character is not to hold back, as it might seem at first glance, but to try to create such living conditions that would allow expressing violent energy in work, sports, and communication. Try to avoid exciting situations, extinguish the excitement by listening to music, and so on up to a light soothing psychopharmacological treatment and autogenous training.
AUTISTIC CHARACTER
Most people in communication express their emotional positions and expect the same from the interlocutor. However, people of this type of character, although they emotionally perceive the situation, have their own attitude to various aspects of life, but are very sensitive, easily traumatized and prefer not to reveal their inner world. Therefore, they are called autistic (Latin "auto" - turned into oneself, closed). In dealing with people of this type, one can encounter both heightened sensitivity, timidity, and absolute, "stone" coldness and inaccessibility. The transitions from one to the other create the impression of inconsistency.
The autistic nature has its positive aspects. These include the steadfastness of intellectual and aesthetic hobbies, tact, unobtrusiveness in communication, independence of behavior (sometimes even overly emphasized and defended), adherence to the rules of formal business relations. Here, persons of an autistic character, due to the subordination of feelings to reason, can provide role models. Difficulties for this characterological type are associated with joining a new team, with establishing informal ties. Friendly relations develop with difficulty and slowly, although if they do, they turn out to be stable, sometimes for life.
If a person with an autistic character came to your team, do not rush to establish informal relationships with him. Persistent attempts to penetrate into the inner world of such a person, "to get into the soul" can lead to the fact that he will become even more isolated, withdraw into himself.
The production activity of such a person may suffer from the fact that he wants to understand everything himself. This is the path leading to high qualifications, but often new knowledge and experience is much easier to obtain through communication with other people. In addition, excessive independence makes it difficult to switch from one issue to another, can complicate cooperation. "Without getting into the soul" of such a person, it is important to organize his activities so that he can listen to the opinions of others.
Sometimes people with an autistic nature follow the easiest path - they communicate only with those who are similar to themselves. This is partly correct, but it can enhance the existing character traits. But communication with an emotional, open, benevolent friend sometimes completely changes a person's character.
If you yourself have such a character, then listen to good advice: do not seek to strengthen isolation, detachment, restraint of feelings in communication. Positive personality traits, taken to an extreme degree, turn into negative ones. Try to develop emotionality and the ability to express feelings. Emotional firmness, certainty, the ability to defend one's position - this is just as necessary for a person as the development of other qualities - intellectual, cultural, professional, business, etc. Human communication suffers from this lack - one of the most valuable aspects of life. And in the end - professional activity.
LABLE CHARACTER
Usually a person experiencing some emotion, such as joy, cannot quickly "change" it. He experiences it for some time, even if circumstances have changed. This is the manifestation of the usual inertia of emotional experiences. Not so with an emotionally labile character: the mood changes quickly and easily following the circumstances. Moreover, a minor event can completely change the emotional state.
A quick and strong change in the mood of such persons does not allow people of the average type (more inert) to "track" their internal state, to empathize with them completely. We often evaluate people by ourselves, and this often leads to the fact that the feelings of a person of an emotionally labile nature are perceived as light, implausible - rapidly changing and therefore as if not real, such that should not be given importance. And this is not true. The feelings of a person of this type are, of course, very real, as can be seen in critical situations, as well as by the stable attachments that this person follows, by the sincerity of his behavior, and the ability to empathize.
A mistake in relation to a person with a labile character may be, for example, such a situation. The boss, who is not sufficiently familiar with his subordinates, can cause them to criticize, "sneak", focusing (unconsciously) on their own emotional inertia. As a result, the reaction to criticism may be unexpected: a woman will cry, a man may quit his job ... Ordinary "sanding" can turn into a mental trauma for life. A person with a labile character must learn to live in a "harsh" and "rough" world for his constitution, learn to protect his, in a sense, weak, nervous system from negative influences. Living conditions and good psychological health are of great importance, since the same traits of emotional lability can be manifested not by positive, but by negative sides: irritability, instability of mood, tearfulness, etc. For persons with this character, a good psychological climate in the work collective is very important ... If others are benevolent, then a person can quickly forget the bad, it seems to be repressed. Communication with hyperthymes has a beneficial effect on persons of an emotionally labile nature. The atmosphere of benevolence, warmth not only affects such people, but also determines the productivity of their activities (psychological and even physical well-being).
DEMONSTRATIVE CHARACTER
The main feature of a demonstrative character is a great ability to supplant a rational, critical view of oneself and, as a consequence, demonstrative, somewhat “acting” behavior.
"Repression" is widely manifested in the human psyche, especially in children. When a child plays, say, an electric locomotive driver, he can get so carried away by his role that, if you refer to him not as an engine driver, but by name, he may be offended. Obviously, this repression is associated with developed emotionality, vivid imagination, weakness of logic, inability to perceive their own behavior from the outside, low self-criticism. All this sometimes persists in adults. A person endowed with a demonstrative character easily imitates the behavior of other people. He can pretend to be the way they would like to see him. Usually such people have a wide range of contacts; as a rule, if their negative traits are not very well developed, they are loved.
The desire for success, the desire to look good in the eyes of others is so clearly represented in this character that one gets the impression that this is the main and almost the only feature. However, it is not. The key feature is the inability to take a critical look at oneself from the outside at certain points in time. To be convinced of this, it is enough to look at what demonstrative personalities represent in other situations. For example, passionate about the role of the patient. Or, flaunting their supposedly immoral behavior, they demonstrate licentiousness, etc. In these cases, regardless of the desire for success in another situation, they can slander themselves that from the standpoint of the previous role is clearly unprofitable. However, there is no correlation of one with the other, there is only a switch from one role to another. Such a person can behave differently with different people, depending on how they would like to see him.
With experience and with the presence of abilities, persons of a demonstrative character can well distinguish the characteristics of other people. They see the attitude towards themselves, adjust to it and try to control it. It should be noted that they often succeed in this. They develop the attitude they want to themselves, sometimes actively manipulating people. The growth of traits of this kind, especially when combined with a low level of intelligence and unsatisfactory upbringing, can lead to adventurism. An example of this is the notorious situations with "getting" a shortage of, say, cars. In such cases, deceived people are let down by the fact that they are guided by internal criteria for evaluating lies - they are trying to determine whether there are any alarming details in the inner world of the adventurer: embarrassment, inconsistency of ideas, etc., which would allow them to suspect him of lying ... But since the adventurer, after entering the role, does not internally feel the lie, then people can easily be deceived when assessing his behavior.
A "developed" demonstrative personality, so to speak, forms his own worldview, deftly "pulling out" from the accepted views what is most suitable for the type of character. For example, the thesis about false modesty, about the admissibility of praise addressed to oneself is assimilated, inertia is rejected, the rationalism of others is allowed hints of one's chosenness.
It will be difficult for such a person if he falls into a team that does not take into account his personal and psychological originality. But there really is such a peculiarity! If those around him are cold, formal, do not notice him, the person begins to behave in a demonstrative manner: he attracts attention to himself, plays scenes, which is usually condemned by others. But, tell me, how else can a person who lives in images show the originality of his experiences? Is it not through images? Obviously, the game that has arisen in these cases should be perceived as such.
Having recognized the demonstrative character, one should "amend" his promises: after all, this is often associated with self-promotion and entering the role of a person who "can do anything." It is necessary to feel where the conventionality of the game is manifested, and where it is about the real state of affairs.
Such a person can be entrusted, for example, with advertising products, if other personality traits do not contradict this. It is good if a person with a demonstrative character will receive satisfaction not only from the main work, but also to participate in amateur performances: in this case, he will give way to his natural inclinations.
Of great importance for the positive restructuring of such a personality is the desire to develop opposite traits in oneself - the ability to restrain oneself, control oneself, direct one's behavior in the right direction, etc. "Over-situational" line of behavior. If demonstrativeness is sufficiently balanced by the opposite traits, a lot is available to a person: both the ability to analyze facts, and the ability to visualize whole pictures, scenarios for the possible development of the current situation, the ability to notice details of people's behavior and accurately respond to them, etc. Under this condition the demonstrative character is mostly manifested by its positive features.
PSYCHASTENIC CHARACTER
An employee with a psychasthenic character, as a rule, is rational, inclined to analytical, "step-by-step" processing of information, comprehension of facts by crushing, highlighting individual features. At the same time, switching to other ways of reflecting the surrounding world - to the level of images, to an intuitive grasp of the situation as a whole - does not occur.
Constant rationalism impoverishes and weakens emotionality. Emotional experiences become dull, monotonous and obey the course of rational constructions. This leads to the fact that, in contrast to the previous type, a weakness of the repression process is observed here. Suppose a person has comprehended the situation, weighed all the pros and cons, came to the conclusion that it is necessary to act in this way, but the emotional movement organizes his inner world so poorly that doubts are not thrown away and the person, as it were, just in case, refrains from action.
The same desires can arise from time to time, not finding expression in behavior, becoming habitual and in the end even annoying. Exciting topics become the subject of repeated reflection, but this does not lead to anything. Doubts can also be habitual, and fluctuations between "for" and "against" in solving any issue can become permanent. As a result, this type of person is characterized by a lack of a firm position. It is replaced by the desire to explore everything, delaying conclusions and decisions. If you need to rationalize the situation, talk to such a person, he will deeply analyze at least some of its sides, although other aspects may be ignored by him.
But a person with such a character should not be blamed on making decisions, especially those responsible. If he has to accept such, then it is necessary to provide assistance in this: to advise, to select experts on this issue, to suggest solutions, helping to overcome the psychological (and not related to objective circumstances) barrier in the transition from decisions to action. Obviously, administrative work is contraindicated for psychasthenics. Having found himself in a difficult, rapidly changing, multilateral situation, for example, a communication situation, such a person does not have time to comprehend it, may feel constrained, and is lost.
You can improve the character of such a person by developing a figurative memory, emotionality. Imagination allows you to reproduce different situations and compare them, making the right conclusions even without analyzing all sides of each situation. As a result, the need for a lot of mental work disappears, and the conclusions may turn out to be correct. The fact is that the analytical approach is always associated with the risk of not taking into account certain features of the case, which are "felt" during direct perception. Emotionality allows you to combine considerations, to combine the principle of similarity of emotional experiences in different areas of experience, that is, it acts as an integrating force organizing the psyche. Emotional assessments, as it were, replace rational analysis, since they allow reflecting many aspects of the situation. It is known that "no knowledge of the truth is possible without human emotions." The development of emotionality smoothes out psychasthenic features.
STUNNING CHARACTER
The fact is that, according to the characteristics of emotional experiences, a stuck character is the opposite of a labile one. As A. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky writes, the law of oblivion operates in the sphere of feelings (this refers to the usual changeable feelings, not moral and ethical attitudes). Remembering the hurt, praise, enthusiasm, disappointment, etc., we can, of course, imagine our state, but we can no longer relive it, the acuteness of the sensation is gradually lost. Persons of a stuck character are arranged differently: when they remember what happened, feelings, in the words of M. Yu. Lermontov, "painfully hit the soul." Moreover, they can intensify, since, repeating from time to time, they stylize the idea of \u200b\u200bthe situation, transforming its details. Grievances are especially remembered for a long time, since negative feelings are experienced more strongly. People with such a character are vindictive, but this is not due to intent, but to persistence and inactivity of experiences.
Inactivity is also manifested at the level of thinking: new ideas are often hard to assimilate, sometimes it is necessary to spend days, months to instill in such a person a fresh idea. But if he really understands her, then he follows her with inevitable persistence. The same slowness, inertia can be manifested at the level of movements. Such a person steps slowly, as if with self-admiration.
Inertia and getting stuck on feeling, thoughts, deeds lead to the fact that excessive detailing, increased accuracy are often manifested in work activities, although attention may not be paid at all to something nearby that did not fall into the scope of attention of the stuck personality. For example, the cleaning of the desktop is carried out extremely carefully, in detail and for a long time. On the shelves, carefully, with an understanding of the smallest details, papers and books are laid out.
As we can see from our example, working with people for a leader with a stuck character is not very good. But the arrangement of the shop, giving it an internally organized look, such a person can be entrusted (if by putting things in order he again does not unnecessarily terrorize others). It should be borne in mind that due to inertia, he may somewhat abuse his power.
A person of this nature is negatively affected by monotonous trauma by some circumstances or constant conditions that cause negative emotions. The accumulation of negative feelings, which not only persist, but also add up, can lead to an explosion.
A person expresses his anger by poor self-control. Extreme situations can lead to pronounced aggressiveness. Positive emotions associated, for example, with success, lead to the fact that a person develops a "dizziness from success", he is "carried", he is uncritically pleased with himself.
The life of a person with a stuck character should be quite varied. Communication with people (and the more of it, the better) will allow him to overcome at least partially his own inner inertia. Of no small importance is the understanding of those around the features of this character: tolerance for expressing long-forgotten grievances or accusations, a condescending attitude towards inertia. Do not contradict the most "difficult" aspirations of such a person, do not seek to re-educate her. Inertia by itself does not determine on what emotions, positive or negative, a person gets stuck. It is better to perceive "stuck" in positive than negative experiences!
CONFORMAL CHARACTER
Even good qualifications do not help a conforming worker to master independent work skills. Those endowed with such a character can only act if they find support from others. Without such support, they are lost, they do not know what to do, what is right in a particular situation and what is wrong.
The peculiarity of people of a conformal nature is the absence of contradictions with their environment. Finding a place in it, they easily feel the "average" opinion of others, are easily impressed by the most common judgments and easily follow them. They cannot resist the pressure of persuasive influences, they immediately yield.
Persons of a conformal nature seem to cement the collective. Invisible, never coming to the fore, they are natural carriers of his norms, values, interests. One of the undoubted advantages of this type of character is gentleness in communication, a natural "statement", the ability to "dissolve" oneself in the values \u200b\u200band interests of another.
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