"SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY"
1. The subject of social psychology.
2. Communication and activities.
3. Communication and personal interactions.
4. The concept of roles, their formation and acceptance by a person.
5. The emergence of social psychology in the West ("psychology of peoples", "psychology of the masses", "theory of the instincts of social behavior").
6. Social psychology and sociology.
7. Social attitudes.
8. Leadership as a form of interpersonal interactions.
9. Types of interpersonal relationships: business, emotional, formal, informal.
10. The general concept of interpersonal cognition.
11. The concept of social groups.
12. Manipulation as a form of interpersonal interactions.
13. Phenomena of group differentiation: the position of the individual in the group (the role of group expectations, status and role, leadership, attitudes, personal well-being) and the motives of interpersonal choice (quantitative and qualitative aspects).
14. Formation of the first impression of another person.
15. Communication as a form of interpersonal interactions.
16. Development of social psychology in Russia, the Soviet Union, post-Soviet Russia.
17. Service as a form of interpersonal interactions.
18. Development of social psychology in Europe and the United States.
19. Classification of groups.
20. Phenomena of group integration: cohesion, compatibility, suggestibility, conformity.
21. Effects of interpersonal perception and understanding: "halo", "stereotyping", "primacy", "novelty".
22. Levels of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, superpersonal.
23. Types of communication: the subject is a real partner, the subject is a subjective object, the subject is an imaginary partner.
24. Transactional analysis.
25. Leadership in the group.
26. Positive and negative influence of the group on the personality.
27. Asch's experiments: group pressure studies.
28. "Psychological" social psychology and "sociological" social psychology.
29. Functions of communication: service of substantive activity, communication for the sake of communication, familiarizing partners with each other's values.
30. General characteristics of communication.
31. Communication functions: informational, regulatory, affective.
32. Man as a subject and as an object in interpersonal interactions.
33. General, age and individual characteristics of human understanding by human.
34. Psychological characteristics of the conflict.
35. The concept of an individual style of communication.
36. Types of interpersonal relations: subject - object, object - subjective, subject - subjective.
37. Social facilitation.
38. Fundamental attribution error.
39. Resistance to group pressure.
40. Deindividualization in the group and the struggle for uniqueness.
41. The general concept of mental, personal and socio-psychological development of the individual.
42. Interpersonal relationships in preschool and primary school age.
43. The relationship of adolescents.
44. Relationships with people in early adolescence.
45. Communication and education.
46. \u200b\u200bPersonal development at school.
47. Family and education.
48. Formation and change of social attitudes.
In society, in the process of social life, a system of personal interactions is formed. A variety of social relations, the subjects of which they are, due to a variety of social interests. Social relations are objective in nature, but for each person, they, reflected in his inner world, acquire a personal meaning, which is manifested in individual behavior, feelings, moods, etc.
Features of interaction in social psychology
An indispensable feature of social relations is the interpersonal socio-psychological aspect. Interpersonal relationships determine the type of interaction (rivalry, cooperation), the degree of their expression (more or less successful, effective cooperation). Their formation is influenced by the conditions of human life, emotional coloring. Emotions inspire action, play an important role in relationships such as friendship, love, marriage. With the help of emotions (fear, laughter, etc.), a person can influence the interaction partner, accordingly changing his reaction to the subject of discussion.
A person with society is connected by an extensive system of connections. Their main elements are the subjects of communication, the subject of communication is something about which the communication is carried out, and the mechanism of conscious regulation of the relationship between the subjects. A concrete connection occurs in the form of contact and interaction itself, but contact is the first stage of real interaction. It can also be an independent phenomenon, which does not develop into interaction. Such contact is superficial, fleeting, devoid of a system of related actions of subjects with each other. The interaction itself is the systematic, regular actions of subjects directed at each other, with the aim of causing an appropriate reaction, which will predetermine a new reaction of the one who makes the impact.
Interaction is an interconnected exchange of actions, the organization of mutual actions by people aimed at the implementation of joint activities.
During the interaction, an exchange of actions takes place, kinship arises, coordination of the actions of both subjects, as well as the stability of their interests, planning of joint activities, distribution of functions, etc. Through actions, mutual regulation, mutual control, mutual influence, mutual assistance occur. This means the participation of each participant interaction in solving a common problem with adjusting their actions, taking into account previous experience, activating their own abilities and those of a partner.
Communicating, exchanging information, a person develops forms and norms of joint actions, organizes and coordinates them. This avoids the gap between communication and interaction.
Types of interaction
Traditionally, the types of interaction are divided into two groups:
1. Cooperation. It provides for such actions that contribute to the organization of joint activities, ensuring its success, consistency, efficiency. This type of interaction is also denoted by the concepts of "cooperation", "consent", "adaptation", "association".
2. Rivalry. This group is formed by actions that, to a certain extent, undermine joint activities, create barriers to mutual understanding. they are also designated by the concepts of "competition", "conflict", "opposition", "dissociation".
This classification is based on a dichotomous division of the types of interactions. The other is the quantitative aspect, that is, it focuses on the number of subjects participating in the interaction. In accordance with it, the interaction between. groups, between an individual and a group, between two individuals (dyad).
Basic scientific views on interaction and its structure
A wide range of features of interaction as a socio-psychological phenomenon, various forms of its course in various social environments, influence on personality, unequal epistemological foundations of scientists who investigated this problem, crystallized in the corresponding theoretical constructions. One of the most famous among them was the theory of social action (M. Weber, T. Parsons, etc.), which in different versions described the individual act of action, as well as the components of interaction: people, the connection between them, the influence on each other. She saw her main task in finding the dominant factors of motivation for actions. The broad context of human activity, according to its supporters, is the result of single actions (elementary acts), which form a system of actions. The elements of the act (single action) are the doer (the one who performs the action); another (the one at whom the action is directed); norms according to which interaction is organized; the values \u200b\u200bthat each of the participants adheres to; the situation in which the action is carried out.
American social psychologists J. Thibault and G. Kelly substantiated a model of dyadic interaction (interaction in a dyad), the essence of which is reduced to the following provisions:
Any interpersonal relationship is an interaction, a real exchange of behavioral reactions within a certain situation;
Interaction is more likely to continue and be appreciated by the participants if they benefit from it;
To determine the presence or absence of benefits, each participant evaluates the interaction in terms of the sign and magnitude of the result, which is the sum of rewards and losses due to the exchange of actions;
The interaction will continue if the rewards of its participants exceed the losses;
The process of obtaining a participant's benefit is complicated by the ability of participants to influence each other, that is, to control rewards and losses.
Further research within the framework of this theory concerned the types of control and characteristics of social behavior of the participants in the interaction.
Consideration of interaction from the standpoint of the concept of symbolic interactionism is associated with the name of the American social psychologist J.-G. Mead. Interaction in it is considered as the starting point of any socio-psychological analysis. It plays a decisive role in the formation of the human "I", but not because people are a set of simple reactions to the opinions of others, but because in situations of interaction, a personality is formed, realizes itself "acting together with others. The model of such situations is a game in which an individual chooses for himself a so-called significant other and is guided by how he is perceived by him.The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe concept of symbolic interactionism consists in the following provisions: the personality is formed in interaction with other people; the mechanism of this process is the control of the actions of the personality, which is based on the perception of others about a person. According to this concept, society is a set of individuals who interact with each other in significant social situations. Simplified, this connection can be considered according to the following scheme: "I am a social situation - a symbolic interpretation of the situation - another person."
A structural description of the interaction is also presented in the trans-action analysis of B. Berna, who viewed it through the dynamics of the interpersonal positions of partners, designating them as Child, Adult, Parent. their interaction is effective if the transactions coincide (have an "additional" character), that is, when, for example, the communicator addresses the recipient as an Adult and he responds in the same position. An indicator of effectiveness is also an adequate understanding of the situation and an adequate style of action in it.
According to G. Andreeva, interaction as the organization of joint activities of people contributes to the disclosure of the meaning of their specific actions. The interactive aspect of communication is the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions that help partners to carry out joint activities. Interaction fixes the exchange of information, the organization of joint actions, that is, communication is organized in the process of joint activity, about it. The severance of communication (its side) with activity delimits these processes from the broad social background against which they occur. That is, the meaningful factor of communication is lost. The only condition for "capturing" this semantic moment 6 is interaction as a form of organizing concrete activities of people.
Various forms of interpersonal interaction can be distinguished: attachment, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, play, social influence, subordination, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc.
Various forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions.
Ritual interaction - one of the most common forms of interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the status of a person in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction, invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. Ritual interaction is based on the parent-parent relationship. The ritual reveals the values \u200b\u200bof the group, people express with the ritual what touches them the most, which is their social value orientations.
The English scientist V. Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." Ritual actions are important for the implementation of continuity between different generations in a particular organization, for maintaining traditions and transferring the accumulated experience through symbols.
Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means of maintaining stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for bringing people together, increasing their solidarity. Rituals,
Fig. 6.9.
Fig. 6.10.
rituals, customs are able to be imprinted on the subconscious level of people, providing a deep penetration of certain values \u200b\u200binto group and individual consciousness, into ancestral and personal memory.
Humanity has developed a huge variety of rituals throughout its history: religious rituals, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rituals, including holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting friends, addressing strangers, etc.
A ritual is a rigidly fixed sequence of transactions, which are produced from and addressed to the Parental position, making people feel recognized. If a person's need for recognition is not realized, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need for recognition at least at a minimal level.
In the following kind of interactions - operations- the transaction is carried out from the "Adult-Adult" position. FROM operationswe meet every day: first of all, interactions at work, school, as well as cooking, renovating an apartment, etc. After a successful operation, a person confirms his competence and receives the approval of others.
Labor interaction, distribution and implementation of professional, family functions, skillful and effective implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.
Competition- a form of social interaction in which there is a clearly defined goal that must be achieved. All actions of different people are correlated with each other with this goal in mind so that they do not come into conflict with each other. At the same time, the person himself, adhering to the attitude of the other team player, seeks to achieve better results than other team members. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people, the opinions, attitudes, expectations of team members affect what he will do in the next moment, taking into account some common goal, since he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting his morality.
In some cases, a person, being with other people in the same room and performing a seemingly joint activity, mentally stays in a completely different place, mentally talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams of his own - such a specific interaction is called leaving. Care - a fairly common and natural form of interaction, but still more often people with problems in the field of interpersonal needs resort to it. If a person has no other forms of interaction other than leaving, then this is already a pathology-psychosis.
Pastime- the next type of approved fixed interactions that provide at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention, "stroking" between interacting people. A pastime is a fixed form of transaction designed to satisfy people's need for recognition. The most common pastimes from the position of "Parent-Parent": everything that deviates from the norm in the behavior of children, women, men, authorities, television, etc. is discussed and condemned, or pastime on the topic: "things" etc.), "Who won yesterday" (football and other sports results) is a man's pastime. "Kitchen", "Shop", "Dress", "Children", "How much does it cost?", "You know what she ..." are mostly female pastime. During these types of interaction, partners are assessed and the prospects for developing relations with them.
Stable interaction of people can be due to the appearance of mutual sympathy, attraction. Intimate relationships that provide friendly support and feelings (ie, we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and loved ones) are associated with feelings of happiness. Research has shown that intimate, positive relationships improve health and reduce the likelihood of premature death. "Friendship is the strongest antidote to all misfortunes," Seneca said.
Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (affection, sympathy):
- - frequency of mutual social contacts, proximity - geographic proximity (most people enter into friendship and marriage with those who live in the neighborhood, studied in the same class, work in the same company, i.e. with those who lived, studied, worked nearby ; proximity to people allows you to meet often, discover similarities in each other, exchange signs of attention);
- - physical attractiveness (men tend to love women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men);
- - the phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose friends for themselves and especially to marry those who are equal to them not only in terms of their intellectual level, but also in terms of attractiveness. Fromm wrote: "Often love is nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction get the most of what they can expect, given their value in the market for individuals. "
In couples where the attractiveness was different, usually the less attractive has a compensating quality. Men usually offer status and seek attractiveness, while women often do the opposite, so young beauties often marry middle-aged men who occupy a high position in society;
- - the more attractive a person is, the more likely it is to attribute positive personal qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness - what is beautiful is good; people unconsciously believe that, all other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and more successful, although not more honest or more caring towards other people. More attractive people have more prestigious jobs, earn more);
- - the attraction may be negatively affected by the "contrast effect" - for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women and their wives seem less attractive, sexual satisfaction with their own partner decreases after watching pornographic films;
- - "amplification effect" - when we find someone's traits that are similar to ours, it makes the person more attractive to us; the more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them;
- - the similarity of social origin, interests, views is important for establishing relationships. ("We love those who are like us and do the same as we do" - pointed out Aristotle.);
- - to continue the relationship, complementarity, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary;
- - we like those who like us;
- - if a person's self-esteem was hurt by some previous situation, then he will more significantly like a new acquaintance who kindly pays attention to him (this helps to explain why sometimes people fall in love so passionately after they were previously rejected by another, affecting their very pride);
- - the rewarding theory of attractiveness: a theory according to which we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events beneficial to us;
- - the principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in them.
If two or more people are connected by a lot, then the factor of closeness is formed, if their ties improve, they do pleasant for each other, sympathy arises, if they see dignity in each other, recognize the right for themselves and others to be what they are, - factor of respect.
Forms of interaction such as friendship and love satisfy people's need for recognition. Friendship and love are outwardly similar to a pastime, however, there is always a clearly fixed partner in relation to whom sympathy is felt. Friendship includes the factor of sympathy and respect, love differs from friendship with an enhanced sexual component, i.e. love \u003d sexual attraction + sympathy + respect, in the case of falling in love there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy. These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden transactions "Child-Child", expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems they want, even at a very adult and serious level, nevertheless, in every word and gesture they will see: "I like you."
Some traits are characteristic of all friendship and love affections: mutual understanding, dedication, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (revealing innermost thoughts and feelings in front of another person). ("What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be yourself" - F. Crane.)
E. Bern investigated this type of interaction between people as play, manipulation. Play is a distorted way of interaction, because all interpersonal needs of a person are transformed into one - the need for control, and then a person resorts to force if he wants recognition, acceptance. Regardless of the type of need and life situation, the game offers only a power solution.
Games (or the English word "games") is a stereotyped series of interactions leading to a predetermined predetermined result, a series of manipulations designed to change the behavior of another person in the direction necessary for the initiator of the transaction, without taking into account the desires of this other. Games, unlike all other types of interactions - rituals, pastimes, operations, friendship, love - are dishonest interactions, because they include traps, teasing, reckoning.
Games differ from other ways of structuring time by two parameters: 1) ulterior motives; 2) the presence of a prize. Each participant of the game, even the one who was defeated, receives a win, but very specific - in the form of negative feelings of resentment, fear, guilt, hatred, suspicion, humiliation, contempt, arrogance, which serves as a kind of confirmation of the correctness of the life position of these people, according to which "people - bad, I am bad, life is bad. "
E. Berne noted that many people play these unconscious games, receiving specific negative benefits, since these games are an important part of the unconscious life plan or scenario of a person. Each game begins with a bait that the active participant, the initiator, offers the passive participant, taking into account his character traits - "weaknesses". This is followed by a series of double transactions that invariably lead to a pre-planned outcome. Once you start a game, it is almost impossible to get out of it, especially if you are a passive participant, as a result of which there is a payback or a win.
In order to get out of the game and not become a victim of someone else's manipulation, it is important to try to replace double transactions with open, direct ones, since the game is possible only if there is a hidden subtext in words and transactions.
The mechanisms and techniques of social psychological influence, the features of conflict interaction are shown in Fig. 6.11, 6.12, 6.13.
Interaction - these are the actions of individuals directed towards each other. Communication as interaction can be viewed in terms of control orientation and comprehension orientation.
Control orientation involves the desire to control, control the situation and behavior of others, which are usually combined with the desire to dominate the interaction.
Comprehension orientation includes seeking to understand the situation and behavior of others. It is associated with the desire to better interact and avoid conflicts, with the idea of \u200b\u200bequality of partners in communication and the need to achieve mutual, rather than one-sided, satisfaction.
So, "controllers" and "understanders" adhere to completely different strategies in communication.
Controller's strategy - the desire to force the partner to accept their interaction plan, to impose their understanding of the situation, and quite often they really achieve control over the interaction.
Understanding strategy - adaptation to a partner. It is significant that different orientations are associated with different distribution of positions in communication. Thus, “controllers” always strive for unequal interactions with subordinates and dominant positions of “vertical interaction”. An orientation toward understanding is more associated with equal horizontal interactions.
When a person feels the threat of rejection, the following types of communication behavior may occur:
1) curry favor so that the other person does not get angry;
2) blame so that the other person considers him strong;
4) withdraw enough to ignore the threat, behave as if it does not exist.
Ingratiating peacemaker tries to please, never arguing about anything, agrees with any criticism addressed to him (and inside he feels himself a worthless thing - "I am nothing without you", "I am helpless").
Prosecutor constantly looking for who is to blame in this or that case. He is a dictator, a master who endlessly reproaches: “If it were not for you, everything would be fine”, with all his looks he shows “I am in charge here”, but deep inside he feels “I am lonely and unhappy”.
A calculating "computer» very reasonable, but expresses no feelings, he seems calm, cold, collected, lives under the slogan: “Say the right things, hide your feelings. Don't react to your surroundings. "
A detached person, whatever he does, whatever he says, is not related to what the interlocutor says or does. He moves away from unpleasant and difficult life situations, tries not to notice, not hear, not react, but inside he feels "No one cares about me, I have no place here," loneliness and complete meaninglessness of my existence. "
Any of these models of communication and response contributes to the maintenance of low self-esteem, a feeling of one's own insignificance. But there is also an effective way to respond – Balanced, flexible»: this version of communication is harmonious: the spoken words correspond to the expression on the face, the posture of intonation, honest and open expression of one's feelings and thoughts. Balanced communication is based on the authenticity of the feelings experienced and shown. For example, the blaming type of communication looks completely different, in which a person, feeling helpless, demonstrates anger or hides resentment behind bravado.
There are other approaches to considering communication as interaction between people.
The unit of interaction is called a transaction. Eric Byrne wrote: “People who are together in the same group will inevitably talk to each other or show their awareness of each other's presence. The person to whom the transactional incentive is directed will say or do something in response. We call this response a transactional response. A transaction is considered complementary if the stimulus triggers the expected response. "
Transactional analysis of communication (E. Bern) identifies three main psychological positions: Child, Parent, Adult, which can repeatedly change one another during the day, or one of them turns out to be predominant in the behavior of a person. From the position of a Child, he looks at the other, as it were, from the bottom up, readily obeys, feeling joy that he is loved, but, at the same time, a feeling of insecurity, defenselessness. This position, being the main one in childhood, is often found in adults. So, sometimes a young woman in communication with her husband wants to feel like a naughty girl again, protected from all kinds of adversity. The husband in such situations takes the position of a Parent, demonstrates confidence, patronage, but, at the same time, is categorical, commanding tone. Another time he himself, for example, communicating with his parents, falls into the place of the Child.
When communicating with colleagues, they usually strive to take the position of an Adult, which provides for a calm tone, restraint, solidity, responsibility for their actions, and equality in communication.
From the position of the Parent, the roles of the old father, elder sister, attentive spouse, teacher, doctor, boss, salesperson who say “come in tomorrow” are “played”. From the position of a Child - a young specialist, post-graduate student, an artist-favorite of the public. From the position of an Adult - a neighbor, a casual companion, a colleague who knows his own worth, etc.
The parent position comes in two flavors:
· "Punishing Parent" : indicates, orders, criticizes, punishes for disobedience and mistakes.
· “Guardian Parent”: advises in a gentle manner, protects, takes care, helps, supports, sympathizes, regrets, cares, forgives mistakes and offenses.
The options are also distinguished in the position "Child":
· "Obedient";
· “Rebellious” (“I don’t want to! I won’t! Leave me alone! What does it matter to you? As I want, I will do so!”).
The most successful and effective is communication between two interlocutors from the position of Adults, and two Children can understand each other.
A transaction is a unit of interaction between communication partners, accompanied by the assignment of each position. It can be depicted as an arrow going from the position chosen by one interlocutor to the assumed position of the other participant in the communication
Communication between Parent and Adult is dynamic. Either the Adult, with his calm, independent, responsible behavior, will knock the arrogance off the Parent, transferring him to an equal Adult position, or the Parent will be able to suppress the interlocutor and put him in the position of a submissive or rebellious Child.
Communication between the Adult and the Child is no less dynamic: either the Adult will be able to induce the Child to take the problem under discussion seriously and responsibly and take the position of the Adult, or the Child's helplessness will provoke the interlocutor to move to the position of the guardian Parent.
Communication between a Parent and a Child is based on the principle of mutual complementarity, therefore, it is often realized in communication, although it can be both calm ("obedient Child") and conflict ("rebellious Child").
There are disguised types of communication, where its external (social) level does not coincide with the true psychological, masks it. For example, communication between a seller and a buyer may outwardly be equal in rights between two Adults, but in fact the dialogue between the seller ("The thing is good, but expensive") and the buyer ("This is what I will take") remains at the level of the relationship between the Parent (seller) and the Child (buyer ).
Various forms of interpersonal interaction can be distinguished: attachment, friendship, love, competition, withdrawal, pastime, operation, play, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc. They are characterized by specific positions.
One of the common forms is ritual interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the status of a person in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction, invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. In this case, the parent-parent relationship dominates. Thanks to such interaction, the value of the group is revealed, people express what affects them most, constitutes their social value orientations.
The English scientist Victor Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." They are important for maintaining continuity between different generations in a particular organization, for preserving traditions and transferring the accumulated experience through symbols.
Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful tool that maintains stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for bringing people together, increasing their solidarity. Rituals, ceremonies, customs are able to be imprinted on a subconscious level, providing a deep penetration of certain values \u200b\u200binto group and individual consciousness, into ancestral and personal memory.
Humanity has developed many customs: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rituals, holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting friends, addressing strangers, etc.
A ritual is a rigidly fixed sequence of transactions, and they are carried out from the position of the Parent and addressed to the same, allowing people to feel recognized.
If a person's need for recognition is not realized, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need to be recognized at least minimally.
In another type of interaction - operations - the transaction is carried out from the “Adult - Adult” position. We meet with him every day: at work, at school, when we cook food, renovate an apartment, etc. After a successful operation, a person is affirmed in his competence and receives confirmation from others.
Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional, family functions, skillful and effective implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.
Competition is a form of social interaction when there is a clear goal that must be achieved, and all actions of various people are correlated with this goal in mind so that they do not conflict. At the same time, a person does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of another team player, although he has a desire to achieve better results than other team members. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people and allows him to determine what he will do in accordance with some common goal, in so far as he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting his morality and becoming a significant member of it.
In a number of cases, being with other people in the same room and performing a seemingly joint activity, a person mentally stays in a completely different place, talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams of his own. This specific interaction is called withdrawal. This is a common and natural form of interaction, but it is still more often resorted to by people who have problems with interpersonal needs. If a person has no other forms of interaction other than leaving, then this is already a pathology - psychosis.
The next type of approved fixed interactions is a pastime that provides at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention from partners.
A pastime is a fixed form of transaction designed to satisfy people's need for recognition.
If this form is implemented from the position of Parent - Parent, then most often it is expressed as follows: everything that deviates from the norm is discussed and condemned - (children, women, men, power, television, etc.). Or, such is the discussion of the topics "Things" (comparison of cars, TVs, etc.), "Who won yesterday" (football and other sports results) - this is the pastime of men; "Kitchen", "Shop", "Dress", "Children", "How much does it cost?", "You know what she ..." - themes for women. In the process, the partners are assessed and the prospects for the development of relations with them.
Stable interaction of people can be due to the appearance of mutual sympathy, attraction. Close relationships that provide support and friendship (that is, we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and family) are associated with feelings of happiness. Studies have shown that such positive relationships improve health and reduce the likelihood of premature death. "Friendship is the strongest antidote to all misfortunes," Seneca said.
Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (affection, sympathy):
· The frequency of mutual social contacts, geographic proximity (most people begin to make friends and marry those who live in the neighborhood, study in the same class, work in the same company, that is, with those who live, study, work nearby; people can partly meet, find similarities in each other, exchange signs of attention) Physical attractiveness (men tend to love women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men - they like beauty).
· The phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose their friends and, especially, to marry those who are equal to them in terms of their intellectual level and are just as attractive as they are). E Fromm wrote: "Often love is nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction get the most of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the personality market" In pairs where partners differed in terms of its attractiveness, the inferior usually has a compensating quality. Men offer status on their part, trying to find attractiveness, and women do the opposite, so young beauties often marry middle-aged men who occupy a high position in society.
· The more attractive a person is, the more likely it is to attribute positive qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is also good). People unconsciously believe that, all other things being equal, the prettier ones are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and more successful, although they are not at all more honest or caring towards other people. People who are more attractive have more prestigious jobs and earn more.
· The attraction is negatively affected by the "contrast effect": for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women and wives seem less attractive; after watching pornographic films, sexual satisfaction with a partner decreases.
· "The amplification effect": when we find in someone the traits that are similar to ours, it makes the person more attractive to us. The more the two love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them.
· The similarity of social origin, the similarity of interests, views are important for the establishment of relationships (“we love those who are similar to us and do the same as we do,” - pointed out Aristotle).
· For their continuation, mutual complementarity, competence in a field close to our interests are required.
· We like those who like us.
If a person's self-esteem has been hurt in a previous situation, then he will like a new acquaintance who benevolently pays attention to him (this helps to explain why sometimes people fall so passionately in love after being rejected by another, thereby affecting them pride).
· Rewarding attractiveness theory: According to it, we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us.
· The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.
If two or more people are connected by many things, the factor of closeness is formed. With the strengthening of relationships, when people please each other, sympathy is formed. When they mutually discover dignity and recognize the right for themselves and others to be what they are, respect is formed.
Forms of interaction such as friendship and love satisfy people's need for acceptance. They are outwardly similar to the passing of time, but the partner in these cases is fixed, in relation to him and sympathy arises. Friendship includes sympathy and respect, love differs from it in an enhanced sexual component, that is, it equals: sexual attraction + sympathy + respect. In the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.
These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden transactions "Child - Child", expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems they want, even at a very adult and serious level, but in every word and gesture they will read: "I like you." Some traits are characteristic of all friendship and love affections: mutual understanding, dedication, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (revealing innermost thoughts and feelings in front of another person). “What is a friend? This is the person with whom you dare to be yourself, ”noted F. Crane.
2.6. Social influence: suggestion, conformism, non-conformism
Social impact - a form of interpersonal interaction, as a result of which the repeated response of a person to a problem is closer to the response of another person than to his own initial response. Thus, the behavior of one person becomes similar to the behavior of other people.
Social influence takes place if, as a result of interaction, a person's repeated response to a certain problem is closer to the response of another than to his own initial one, that is, the behavior of one person becomes similar to the behavior of other people.
The mechanisms that implement social influence are: conformism, non-conformism and suggestion.
Suggestion (suggestibility) - the involuntary compliance of a person with the opinion of other individuals or a group, when he himself does not notice how his views and behavior have changed, this happens by itself.
Conformism - conscious compliance of a person with the opinion of the majority of the group in order to avoid conflict with it. In adolescence, adolescence, conformism is the highest, then it decreases, after 25 years it remains for each person at a constant individual level, and in women, conformism is higher than in men. Distinguish: a) internal personal conformity (assimilated conformal reaction) - the person's opinion really changes under the influence of the group, the person agrees; b) demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most often to avoid conflicts).
Studies have shown that suggestibility and conformism are inherent to one degree or another in every person from childhood to the end of life, but their severity is influenced by age, sex, profession, group composition, etc. Under the influence of what factors does a person inferior to a group?
1) First of all, the characteristics of the person himself affect: in adolescence, adolescence, conformism is highest, then it decreases, after 25 years it remains at a stable level for everyone, and in women it is higher than in men, but by the way, not always. If the problem under discussion belongs to the category of predominantly female types of activity, then women are not inferior, and men are becoming more conformable. The level of conformity also depends on the professional activity of a person. Thus, it is high among musicians from the orchestra (70%), and among the military it is higher than among engineers.
The characteristics of the problem itself are affected , stimulus material: the more complex and ambivalent it is, the more often conformity manifests itself. Categorical, qualitative incentives (rather than quantitative characteristics of incentives) increase the ability to resist group pressure.
The scale of the group also affects . At first, it was assumed that an increase in it leads to an increase in conformity, but it turned out that the dependence is not straightforward, but exponential in nature: when one more person joins the majority, the "naive" subject increases conformity, but to a lesser extent than when the majority joined previous person. Conformity increases with an increase in the group only up to a certain limit (3 - 5 - 7 people), after which it does not grow, and even then only if all members of the group are perceived by a person as independent of each other, that is, the number of perceived independent sources of information. The degree of consent of the majority also influences. So, with the destruction of the unity of group opinion, a person more boldly resists its pressure.
The relationship between a person and a group affects (for example, when people worked for joint remuneration and it was necessary to make a common decision, conformity increased). The higher the degree of a person's commitment to a group, the more often conformity is manifested. But there is an exception to this rule: the question is, is the person seeking acceptance from the group? If he wants this, he often yields to the group, and vice versa: if he does not value it, then he resists pressure more boldly. Individuals with a higher status in the group (leaders) are able to quite strongly resist her opinion, because leadership is associated with some deviations from group patterns. Individuals with central status are most susceptible to their pressure; people from the polar categories are more able to resist group pressure.
What is the reason for conformity? From the point of view of the informational approach (Leon Festinger), a modern person cannot verify all the information that comes to him, and therefore relies on the opinions of other people when it is shared by many. A person succumbs to group pressure because he wants to have a more accurate image of reality (most cannot be wrong). From the point of view of the hypothesis of "normative influence", he does this because he wants to have some of the advantages given by membership in the group, to avoid conflicts and sanctions for deviations from the accepted norm, to support his further interaction with the group.
Excessive conformity is a psychologically harmful phenomenon. Then a person, as a "weathervane", follows the group opinion, without having his own views, acting as a puppet in the hands of others, or realizes himself as a hypocritical opportunist, capable of repeatedly changing behavior and outwardly expressed beliefs in accordance with "where the wind is blowing from, for the sake of "the powers that be". According to Western psychologists, many Soviet people are formed in the direction of such heightened conformity.
The positive value of conformism is that it acts as a mechanism for the rallying of human groups, human society and a mechanism for the transmission of social heritage, culture, traditions, social patterns of behavior, attitudes.
Non-conformism - refutation of the opinion of the majority by a person, a protest of obedience, the apparent independence of the individual from the opinion of the group, although in fact, here the point of view of the majority is the basis for human behavior. Therefore, the behavior of the nonconformist is as easy to control as the behavior of the conformist.
The opposite of conformism and non-conformism is self-determination -the selective attitude of a person to the influences of his own group, which are accepted or rejected depending on whether they correspond to the beliefs of the person.
According to psychological characteristics, they are distinguished:
1) membership groups;
2) reference groups (reference), the norms and rules of which serve as a model for the individual. Reference groups can be real or imagined, positive or negative, they may or may not coincide with membership, but they are a source of positive and negative patterns, as well as norms and rules to which a person seeks to join.
What determines the relationship between the individual and the community? On the one hand, the stability of existence in a group leads to cunification, assimilation, similarity of the individuals included there, that is, the group has an inherent desire for homeostasis, for balancing its components. On the other hand, each member of the group can be considered as a source of transformation of the opinions of other members of the group, that is, the minority is able to influence the majority, since not only the individual adapts to the social environment, but also vice versa: adapts the environment to his views.
Under what conditions can a minority transform the position of the majority? By themselves, they are different:
• a minority, whose position does not differ essentially from the majority, but only is more radical;
· The position of the minority is opposed to the position of the majority.
For minority conversion to majority opinion , it is necessary, first, that the minority be accepted in the group, be part of it, and not be rejected, expelled. Secondly, to be able to express your position quite openly. In this case, the following dynamics of intragroup influences occurs: first, the majority gets the feeling that “they” (the minority) are “abnormal”, and then doubts arise that are addressed to the problem itself, to the stimulus itself. Then a doubt arises: "Maybe there are reasons, external objective reasons that make" them "say" wrong "?"
This is how a stage of doubting one's own position arises, i.e., a revision of one's abilities to adequately determine the correct answer. It is this social and cognitive conflict that gives rise to a revision of the opinion of the majority in the case when there is no real life confirmation of the correctness of its positions. If additional information is received about the partial incorrectness of the majority's position, the process of revising opinions, their preponderance to the side of the minority, is faster. At the same time, it is not even necessary that the correctness of the position of the second was confirmed by strong real arguments. If the “minority” gets official power or the opportunity to widely propagate their opinions, the process of transformation, change, and revision of the majority's position occurs more intensively. If the minority is expelled from the group or deprived of the opportunity to express their point of view, the group opinion of the majority remains dominant for a long time.
A common form of social influence is obedience, submission to authority , a person's exposure to the influence of a person with a higher social status. If we exclude the danger factor of getting into trouble, social punishment in case of disobeying a person with a higher status (in this case, in order to protect himself, a person seeks to minimize troubles and punishment for himself, choosing a strategy of submission), then one should ask the question: what other factors can enhance this tendency to obey ?
In the experiments of the American psychologist Stanley Milgram, the subjects in the role of "teachers" shocked the "students" - the victims, and 66% of the subjects continued to take part in the experiment even with severe pain, fainting of the "victim". Why didn't they give up on the experiment?
When a person interacts, there are two types of states:
· An autonomous state of personality, a sense of personal responsibility for everything that happens around;
A person imagines himself as occupying a certain step in the hierarchical ladder, included in the hierarchical system, and therefore believes that an individual who is at a higher level of this hierarchy bears responsibility for his behavior - this is the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility, or attribution of responsibility , attributing it to another person, not yourself.
So in this experiment, many subjects perceived the experimenter as a person who has a higher status, and, therefore, it is this person who is responsible for everything that happens. Such an internal position leads to uncritical, unconditional submission to the authority of persons occupying a higher social position, even if their instructions contradict the requirements of the law, morality, and even the views themselves, the attitudes of a particular person.
Society does not consist of separate individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relationships in which these individuals are with each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is the interaction of people.
Interactionis a process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, which generates their mutual conditioning and connection.
It is causality that is the main feature of the interaction, when each of the interacting parties vys-. dulls as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If a contradiction is found during interaction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and phenomena and processes.
Interaction in Russian social psychology usually means not only the influence of people on each other, but also the direct organization of their joint, which allows the group to realize the common activity for its members. The very same interaction in this case acts as a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate response from other people.
Usually distinguish between interpersonal and intergroup interaction.
Interpersonal interaction- accidental or deliberate, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and communication of two or more people, causing mutual changes in their relationship, etc.
The presence of an external goal in relation to interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts.
Explication (availability) for observation from the outside and registration by other people.
Situationality is a rather rigid regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relations, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon.
Reflexive polysemy - the dependence of perception on the conditions of implementation and assessments of its participants.
Intergroup interaction - the process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditioning and the peculiar nature of relations. Usually it takes place between entire groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.
Currently, in Western science, there are many points of view explaining the reasons for the interaction of people.
The process of human interaction is divided into three main stages (levels).
At the first stage (initial level), interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people. Between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or unilateral influence on each other for the purpose of information exchange and communication. For specific reasons, it may not achieve its goal and not receive further development.
The success of the initial contact depends on the acceptance or rejection of the interaction partners of each other. Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions for the development of their interaction (communication, relationships, compatibility, working capacity), as well as themselves as individuals.
Any contact usually begins with a specific-sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals dominate. Acceptance-rejection relationships are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, the desire to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other or not. If not, then reciprocal or one-sided reactions (gestures) of rejection follow.
The contact is terminated.
And vice versa, people turn to those who smile, look directly and openly, turn in frontal view, respond with a cheerful and cheerful intonation; to someone who is trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed on the basis of joint efforts.
Of course, the acceptance or rejection of each other by interaction partners has deeper roots.
The first (lower) level is the ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are age and sex differences between partners.
The second (upper) level of homogeneity - heterogeneity (degree of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction) is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions in the group, relationships (including likes and dislikes) to oneself, partners or other people and to the objective world (in including joint activities). The second level is subdivided into sublevels: primary (or initial) and secondary (or effective). The primary sublevel is the initial ratio of opinions given before interpersonal interaction (about the world of objects and their own kind). The second sublevel is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and relationships as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities.
The congruence effect plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage, i.e. confirmation of mutual role expectations, a single resonant rhythm, consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact.
Congruence presupposes a minimum of mismatches in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, the result of which is the release of tension, the emergence of trust and sympathy at the subconscious level.
Congruence is reinforced by the partner's feeling of complicity, interest, mutual search activity based on his needs and life experience. Congruence may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unknown partners, or it may not occur at all. The presence of a congruence indicates an increased likelihood that the interaction will continue. In this sense, one should strive to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact.
The experience of belonging, which arises:
- when the goals of the subjects of interaction are interconnected;
- when there is a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;
- in the case of subjects belonging to one.
Empathy (emotional empathy for the interlocutor) is realized:
- when establishing emotional contact;
- when the behavioral and emotional reactions of partners are similar;
- in the presence of the same feelings for some object;
- when attention is drawn to the feelings of partners (for example, they are simply described).
Identification (the projection of one's views on the interlocutor), which is enhanced by:
- with a variety of behavioral manifestations of the interacting parties;
- when a person sees in another traits of his character;
- when the partners seem to change places and discuss from each other's positions;
- when referring to previous cases;
- with a commonality of thoughts, interests, social roles and positions.
As a result of congruence and effective initial contacts, feedback is established between people, which is a process of mutually directed response actions that serves to maintain subsequent interaction, during which both intentional and unintentional communication to another person is carried out about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences ) are perceived or experienced.
Feedback is of different types, and each of its options corresponds to one or another specificity of the interaction of people and the establishment of stable relations between them.
- - in the form of a speech message.
- - carried out by means of facial expressions, posture, voice intonation, etc.
In the form of a manifestation-oriented action, showing the other person understanding, approval and expressed in a joint.
Feedback can be immediate and delayed in time. It can be bright, emotionally colored and transmitted as a kind of experience, or it can be with a minimal experience of emotions and behavioral responses (Solovyova O.V., 1992). Different types of joint activities are appropriate for their own types of feedback. The inability to use feedback significantly complicates the interaction of people, reducing its effectiveness. Thanks to feedback in the course of interaction, people become like each other, bring their state, emotions, actions and actions in accordance with the unfolding process of relationships.
At the middle stage (level) of human interaction, which is called productive joint activity, the gradually developing active cooperation finds more and more expression in the effective solution of the problem of combining mutual efforts of partners.
Usually distinguish three forms, or models, of organizing joint activities:
- each participant does his part of the common work independently of the other;
- the common task is performed sequentially by each participant;
- there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. Their real existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content.
At the same time, common aspirations of people can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into a "agree-disagree" relationship with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction is carried out. These relations cause a special orientation of volitional efforts among the subjects of interaction, which is associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to display mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities of a person, based on intelligence and a high level of personality.
At the same time, at this time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied or mediated by the manifestation of complex social and psychological phenomena, called compatibility - incompatibility (or synergy - non-response). As interpersonal relationships and communication are specific forms of interaction, so compatibility and responsiveness are considered its special constituent elements (Obozov N.N., 1980). Interpersonal relationships in a group and compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another major socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called the "psychological climate."
- Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of the characteristics of temperament, the needs of individuals.
- Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, motives of behavior.
- Socio-psychological compatibility provides for the coordination of social roles, interests, value orientations of the participants.
- Socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, on the similarity of social attitudes (in terms of intensity and orientation) regarding possible facts of reality associated with the realization of ethnic, class and confessional interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while the extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological, socio-psychological and socio-ideological climate, have obvious differences (Obozov N.N., 1980).
In joint activities, control on the part of the participants themselves is noticeably intensified (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual verification), which affects the performing part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.
At the same time, it should be remembered that the motivation of its participants acts as the engine of interaction and joint activity. There are several types of social motives for interaction (i.e., motives for which a person interacts with other people).
- Cooperation - to maximize the total gain.
- Individualism - maximizing your own gain.
- Competition - maximizing the relative gain.
- Altruism - maximizing the gain of another.
- Aggression - minimizing the gain of another.
- Equality-minimization of differences in payoffs (Bityanova M.R., 2001).
The mutual control over each other carried out by the participants in joint activities can lead to a revision of individual motives of activity, if there are significant differences in their direction and level, as a result of which individual people begin to coordinate.
In the course of this process, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, relationships of partners in joint life. It is clothed in various forms of people's influence on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to take action (order, request, proposal), others authorize the actions of partners (consent or refusal), and still others call for discussion (question, reasoning). The very same discussion can take the form of coverage, conversation, debate, conference, seminar and a whole range of other types of interpersonal contacts.
However, the choice of forms of influence is often dictated by the functional-role relationships of partners in joint work. For example, the supervisor's control function encourages him to use more frequent orders, requests, and authorizing responses, while the pedagogical function of the same leader requires more frequent use of discussion forms of interaction. Thus, the process of mutual influence of interaction partners is realized. Through it, people "process" each other, seeking to change and transform mental states, attitudes, and ultimately the behavior and psychological qualities of partners in joint activities.
Mutual influence as a change in opinions and assessments can be situational when circumstances require it. As a result of repeated changes in opinions and assessments, their stability is formed, the convergence of positions leads to the behavioral, emotional and cognitive unity of the participants in the interaction. This, in turn, leads to a convergence of interests and value orientations, intellectual and characterological characteristics of partners.
Under their influence, opinions and relations of interaction partners change. Regulators of mutual influence are formed on the basis of a deep property of the psyche - imitation. In contrast to the latter, suggestion, conformity, and persuasion regulate interpersonal norms of thought and feeling.
Suggestion is such an influence on other people that they perceive unconsciously.
Conformity is a conscious change in opinions and assessments. Situationally and consciously, conformity allows you to maintain and harmonize ideas (norms) about the events in the life and activities of people. Of course, events have varying degrees of significance for those who are forced to evaluate them.
Persuasion is a process of long-term influence on another person, during which he consciously learns the norms and rules of behavior of interaction partners.
The convergence or change of mutual points of view and opinions affects all areas and levels of interacting people. In the context of solving specific current tasks of life and activity, and especially communication, their convergence-divergence is a kind of regulator of interpersonal interaction. If the convergence of assessments and opinions forms a single "language", group norms of relations, behavior and activity, then their divergence acts as a driving force for the development of interpersonal relations and groups.
The final stage (highest level) of interaction is always an extremely effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding. Mutual understanding between people is such a level of their interaction at which they are aware of the content and structure of the present and possible next action of the partner, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. For mutual understanding, joint activities are not enough, mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode - mutual opposition, with the appearance of which there is a misunderstanding, and then a misunderstanding of man by man. At the same time, mutual misunderstanding is one of the essential prerequisites for the collapse of human interaction or the cause of a wide variety of interpersonal difficulties, etc.
An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy... It depends on a number of factors:
- the type of relationship between partners (relationship of acquaintance and friendship, friendship, love and marriage);
- comradely (essentially business relations);
- sign or valence of relations (likes, dislikes, indifferent relations);
- the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of communication interaction).
In adequacy, as accuracy, depth and breadth of perception and interpretation, the opinion, assessment of other more or less significant people, groups, authority figures play an important role.
For a correct analysis of mutual understanding, two factors can be correlated - sociometric status and the degree of similarity by it. It is necessary to take into account:
- persons with different social and psychological statuses in the team interact (make friends) steadily;
- reject each other, i.e. experience interpersonal rejection, heifers who are similar in status and their status is not high enough.
Thus, interaction is a complex multistage and multifaceted process, during which communication, perception, relationships, mutual influence and mutual understanding of people are carried out.
Interaction, as already emphasized, is diverse. An indicator of this is its typology.
Usually there are several ways of interaction. The most common dichotomous division is:
- cooperation and competition (agreement and conflict, adaptation and opposition). In this case, both the content of the interaction itself (cooperation or rivalry) and the severity of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relations between people.
- Additional interaction - partners adequately perceive each other's position.
- Overlapping interaction - partners, on the one hand, demonstrate an inadequate understanding of the positions and actions of another participant in the interaction, and on the other, they clearly demonstrate their own intentions and actions.
- Latent interaction - includes two levels at the same time: explicit, expressed verbally, and hidden, implied. It presupposes either a deep knowledge of the partner, or a great sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since it is they that convey hidden content.
Interaction is always present in the form two components:
- Content - determines around what or about what this or that interaction is developing.
- Style - indicates how a person interacts with others.
You can talk about productive and unproductive interaction styles. A productive style is a fruitful way of contact between partners, contributing to the establishment and extension of relationships of mutual trust, the disclosure of personal potentials and the achievement of effective results in joint activities.
In other cases, having exhausted the resources of adaptation available to them, having achieved some balance and trust at the first stages of the development of interaction, people cannot maintain effective relationships. In both cases, they talk about an unproductive style of interaction - an unproductive way of contact between partners, which blocks the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities.
The unproductiveness of the style of interaction is usually understood as a specific embodiment in a situation of interaction of an unfavorable state of the existing system of relations, which is perceived and realized as such by at least one of the participants in the interaction.
The nature of activity in the position of partners:
- in a productive style - "next to a partner", ie active position of both partners as accomplices in the activity;
- in the unproductive one - “above the partner”, ie the active position of the leading partner and the complementary passive position of subordination of the follower.
The nature of the goals put forward:
- in a productive style - partners jointly develop both near and distant goals;
- in the unproductive one - the dominant partner puts forward only close goals, without discussing them with the partner.
Nature of responsibility:
- in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of the activity;
- in unproductive - all responsibility is assigned to the dominant partner.
The nature of the relationship arising between partners:
- in a productive style - benevolence and trust;
- in the unproductive - aggression, resentment, irritation.
The nature of the functioning of the mechanism and isolation:
- in a productive style - optimal forms of identification and alienation;
- in the unproductive, extreme forms of identification and alienation.