Social conflict (from lat. confliktus- clash) is the highest stage in the development of contradictions in the relations between people, social groups, society as a whole, which is characterized by a clash of oppositely directed interests, goals, and positions of subjects of interaction. Conflicts may be hidden or explicit, but they are always based on a lack of agreement between two or more parties.
Concept of social conflict
It is one of the varieties of social conflict.
The word "" (from lat. confliktus) means a clash (of parties, opinions, forces). The concept of social conflict as a collision of two or more subjects of social interaction is widely interpreted by representatives of various areas of the conflictological paradigm. Thus, in the view of K. Marx in class society, the main social conflict manifests itself in the form of an antagonistic class struggle, the culmination of which is the social revolution. According to L. Coser, the conflict is one of the types of social interaction, during which "there is a struggle for values \u200b\u200band claims for status, power and resources, during which opponents neutralize, damage or eliminate their rivals." In the interpretation of R. Darendorf, social conflict is a different in intensity types of clashes between conflicting groups, in which the class struggle is one of the types of confrontation.
It is an open confrontation, a clash of two or more subjects (parties) of social interaction, the reasons for which are incompatible needs, interests and values.
The conflict is based on subjective-objective contradictions. However, not every contradiction develops into a conflict. The concept of contradiction in its content is broader than the concept of conflict. Social contradictions are the main determining factors of social development. They "permeate" all spheres of social relations and for the most part do not develop into conflict. In order for objectively existing (periodically occurring) contradictions to transform into a social conflict, it is necessary that the subjects (subject) of interaction realize that this or that contradiction is an obstacle to their achievement of vital goals and interests. According to K. Boulding, a conflict arises when the “matured” contradictions are recognized by the parties as incompatible and each side seeks to take hold of a position that excludes the intentions of the other side. Therefore, conflicting contradictions are subjective-objective in nature.
The contradictions that actually exist in society regardless of the will and desire of the subjects are considered objective. For example, the contradictions between labor and capital, between the stewards and the ruled, the contradictions of the "fathers" and "children", etc.
In addition to the objectively existing (emerging) contradictions, imaginary contradictions may arise in the imagination of the subject when there are no objective reasons for the conflict, but the subject is aware of (perceives) the situation as a conflict. In this case, we can talk about subjective-subjective contradictions. Another situation is possible when conflictual contradictions really exist, but the subject believes that there are no sufficient reasons for the conflict.
Contradictions can exist for a rather long period of time and not develop into conflict. Therefore, it must be borne in mind that the conflict is based only on the contradictions caused by incompatible interests, needs and values. Such contradictions, as a rule, give rise to an open struggle of the parties, confrontation.
The causes of the conflict can be a variety of problems, for example, a conflict over material resources, about values \u200b\u200band the most important attitudes, about authority (dominance problems), about role-role differences in the social structure, about personal (including emotionally -psychological) differences, etc. Thus, conflicts cover all spheres of human life, the entire totality of social relations, social interaction. Conflict but in essence is one of the types of social interaction, the subjects and participants of which are individuals, large and small social groups and organizations. However, conflict interaction involves a confrontation between the parties, i.e. actions of subjects directed against each other.
The form of clashes - violent or non-violent - depends on many factors, including whether there are real conditions and possibilities (mechanisms) for non-violent conflict resolution, what goals the subjects of confrontation pursue, what settings the conflicting parties are “guided” by, etc.
So, social conflict is an open confrontation, a clash of two or more subjects (parties) of social interaction, the reasons for which are incompatible needs, interests and values.
Structure of social conflict
In a simplified form, the structure of social conflict consists of the following elements:
- object - the specific cause of the clash of actors;
- two or more subjectsconflicting due to any object;
- incident - a formal occasion to start an open confrontation.
Conflict is preceded by the occurrence conflict situation. These are contradictions that arise between subjects about the object.
Under the influence of the growth of social tension, the conflict situation is gradually transforming into an open social conflict. But tension itself can exist for a long time and not develop into conflict. In order for a conflict to become real, an incident is needed - a formal reason for the conflict to start.
However, the real conflict has a more complex structure. For example, in addition to the subjects involved in it are participants (direct and indirect), supporters, sympathizers, instigators, mediators, arbitrators, etc. Each of the participants in the conflict has its own qualitative and quantitative characteristics. An object may also have its own characteristics. In addition, a real conflict develops in a specific social and physical environment, which also affects it. Therefore, a more complete structure of social (political) conflict will be discussed below.
The essence of social conflict
The sociological understanding and modern understanding of social conflict was first laid down by a German sociologist G. Simmel. In work "Social conflict" he notes that the process of development of society goes through a social conflict, when obsolete cultural forms become obsolete, “demolished” and new ones arise. Today, a whole branch of sociology is already engaged in the theory and practice of regulating social conflicts - conflict management. The most famous representatives of this direction are R. Darendorf, L. Coser. K. Bouldingidr.
German sociologist R. Darendorf created theory of the conflict model of society. According to the scientist, in any society every moment social conflicts can arise, which are based on a conflict of interests. Darendorf considers conflicts as an indispensable element of public life, which, as sources of innovation, contribute to the continuous development of society. The main task is to learn to control them.
The American sociologist L. Coser developed the theory of positive-functional conflict. By social conflict, he understood the struggle for values \u200b\u200band claims for a certain status, power and resources, a struggle in which the opponents' goals are to neutralize, cause damage or eliminate the enemy.
According to this theory, social inequality, which inevitably exists in every society and causes natural social dissatisfaction of people, often leads to social conflicts. L. Coser sees the positive functions of conflicts in the fact that they contribute to the renewal of society and stimulate social and economic progress.
General theory of conflict owned by an American sociologist K. Boulding. The conflict, in his understanding, is a situation in which the parties realize the incompatibility of their positions and at the same time strive to get ahead of the opponent and beat him. In modern society, according to Boulding, conflicts are inevitable, so you need to control them and manage them. The main signs of conflict are:
- the presence of a situation that the opposing parties perceive as conflict;
- the presence of conflicting goals, needs, interests and methods of achieving them among the parties to the conflict;
- interaction of conflicting parties;
- results of conflict interaction;
- the use of pressure and even force.
Of great importance for the sociological analysis of social conflicts is the allocation of the main types. The following types of conflicts:
1. by the number of participants in the conflict interaction:
- intrapersonal - a person’s state of dissatisfaction with any circumstances of his life that are related to the presence of conflicting needs and interests. aspirations and can cause affects;
- interpersonal - disagreement between two or more members of the same group or several groups;
- intergroup - occur between social groups that pursue incompatible goals and interfere with each other through practical actions;
2. in the direction of conflict interaction:
- horizontal - between people who are not subordinate to each other;
- vertical - between people who are subordinate to each other;
- mixed - in which both are represented. The most common vertical and mixed conflicts, accounting for an average of 70-80% of all conflicts;
3. by source of occurrence:
- objectively determined - caused by objective reasons, which can be eliminated only by changing the objective situation;
- subjectively conditioned - associated with the personal characteristics of conflicting people, as well as with situations that create obstacles to the satisfaction of their desires, aspirations, interests;
4. in its functions:
- constructive (integrative) - contributing to the updating, implementation of new structures, policies, leadership;
- destructive (disintegrative) - destabilizing social systems;
5. the duration of the course:
- short-term - caused by mutual misunderstanding or mistakes of the parties that are quickly recognized;
- protracted - associated with deep moral and psychological trauma or objective difficulties. The duration of the conflict depends both on the subject of the contradiction and on the character traits of the people who have collided;
6. according to its internal content:
- rational - covering the field of reasonable, business rivalry, redistribution of resources;
- emotional - in which participants act on the basis of personal hostility;
7. There are conflicts on methods and means of resolving peaceful and armed:
8. to account for the content of the problems that caused the conflict, distinguish economic, political, household, industrial, spiritual, moral, legal, environmental, ideological and other conflicts.
Analysis of the course of the conflict is carried out in accordance with its three main stages: pre-conflict situation, the conflict itself and the resolution stage.
Pre-conflict situation - this is the period when the conflicting parties evaluate their resources, forces and consolidate into opposing groups. At the same stage, each of the parties forms its own behavior strategy and chooses a way of influencing the enemy.
The conflict itself is this is the active part of the conflict, characterized by the presence of an incident, i.e. social actions aimed at changing the command of the opponent. Actions themselves are of two types:
- actions of rivals that are open in nature (verbal debate, physical impact, economic sanctions, etc.);
- hidden actions of rivals (associated with the desire to deceive, confuse the opponent, impose on him an unfavorable option).
The main course of action for a hidden internal conflict is reflective control meaning that one of the rivals through "deceptive movements" is trying to force the other person to act in this way. how beneficial to him.
Conflict Resolution possible only by eliminating the conflict situation, and not just by exhausting the incident. Resolution of the conflict may also occur as a result of depletion of the resources of the parties or the intervention of a third party, creating an advantage for one of the parties, and, finally, as a result of the complete exhaustion of the opponent.
To successfully resolve the conflict, the following conditions are necessary:
- timely determination of the causes of the conflict;
- definition business zone conflict - reasons, contradictions, interests, goals of the conflicting parties:
- mutual desire of the parties to overcome the contradictions;
- joint search for ways to overcome the conflict.
There are various conflict resolution methods:
- conflict avoidance - withdrawal from the “scene” of the conflict interaction physically or psychologically, but the conflict itself in this case is not eliminated, since the reason that gave rise to it remains;
- negotiations - they allow to avoid the use of violence, achieve mutual understanding and find a way to cooperation;
- use of intermediaries - conciliation procedure. An experienced mediator, which can be an organization and an individual, will help to quickly resolve the conflict there. where without his participation it would be impossible;
- shelving - in fact, this is the surrender of one’s position, but only temporary, because as the forces accumulate, the party will most likely try to regain what was lost;
- arbitration, or arbitration, - a method in which they are strictly guided by the norms of laws and law.
The consequences of the conflict may be:
1. positive:
- resolution of accumulated contradictions;
- stimulation of the process of social change;
- rapprochement of conflicting groups;
- strengthening the cohesion of each of the rival camps;
2. negative:
- tension
- destabilization;
- disintegration.
Conflict resolution may be:
- full - the conflict ends completely;
- partial - The conflict changes the external form, but retains motivation.
Of course, it is difficult to foresee the whole variety of conflict situations that life creates for us. Therefore, much in resolving conflicts should be decided on the spot based on the specific situation, as well as the individual psychological characteristics of the parties to the conflict.
Sociology defines social conflict as the highest form of contradiction in society. In everyday consciousness, conflict is a phenomenon that should be avoided. However, scientists find in it many positive functions. The specifics and social role of the conflict are the subject of deep research and reflection by scientists.
The concept
Conflictology defines social conflict as the highest point of clash of interests between members and groups of society. The history of social conflicts goes back centuries. Already the first communities of people defended their interests in opposing each other. Defining the essence of this phenomenon, thinkers have different approaches to its definition. So, according to K. Marx, the social conflict is the antagonism of classes, which inevitably ends with a revolution.
Lewis Coser, an American sociologist, believes that social conflict is the interaction of opponents, which takes the form of a struggle for values, power, and resources using various methods of inflicting various damage on their rival.
German sociologist Ralph Derendorf says that social conflict is a clash of social groups of varying degrees of intensity and manifestation, and class struggle is just one of its types. Thus, an understanding of social conflict always includes ideas about confrontation for something. The degree of severity may be different, but there is always a confrontation in it.
Causes of conflict
A social conflict is a frequent phenomenon, and it can be associated with many reasons. The society is a sphere of permanent conflict of interests of different parties, and the diversity of these interests becomes the source of such many causes of confrontation. You can imagine the most common causes of social conflicts as follows:
Interests and beliefs. Worldviews, dominant values, human preferences - all this can cause social conflicts. Clash of views, religious beliefs, production interests can provoke confrontations of different strengths. We see how today ethnic and religious differences can lead to armed upholding of their views. Contradictions in norms and values \u200b\u200bcan cause very strong emotions in people. Psychological attitudes, stereotypes, an ingrained worldview - all this is perceived by a person as part of his personality, therefore, an encroachment on them causes aggression and negativity. Conflicts of economic, cultural, political interests can also cause confrontation.
Needs. Ways to meet the needs of groups of some people can cause resistance in others. For example, satisfying food, shelter, and security needs can threaten the needs of others for the same. Thus, the migration of population groups from war-ravaged territories to prosperous countries risks undermining the well-being of the inhabitants of these places. All of the above leads to social conflicts.
Disorganization of society. Social and economic inequality, the struggle of ideologies, the presence of unemployment, orphanhood, the severity of the political struggle, inequality of opportunity - all this very often becomes a source of social tension, which translates into conflicts.
Theories of Social Conflict
The essence and causes of social conflicts are investigated by sociologists, psychologists, and philosophers. As a result, several basic approaches to understanding the nature of this phenomenon appear.
The socio-biological theory of social conflict is based on the postulates of C. Darwin on evolution and understands conflict as a natural mechanism for the struggle for survival. This point of view was held by G. Spencer, W. Sumner. They believed that conflict was inevitable until a balance was reached between the interests and needs of all people, which, in principle, is utopian.
The psychological approach believes that conflict is in the nature of human behavior. Modern society violates the individual interests of the individual, and this leads to conflict. Conflict is an instrument for defending a person’s rights to his expectations and satisfaction of needs.
Marxist theory proceeds from materialistic views and believes that conflict is the result of class inequality, and it is due to class struggle. When a balance of interests is found between all members of society, the confrontation will disappear. The cause of the conflict, according to K. Marx, G. Marcuse, R. Michels, is the inequality of living and working conditions, as well as the hereditary transfer of privileges and unequal starting opportunities.
Dialectical theories, today recognized as the most realistic and progressive, proceed from the fact that the social system is unstable, and this variability leads to conflicts. Researchers L. Coser, R. Darendorf, C. Boulding acknowledge that the conflict not only has destructive consequences, but also is a productive mechanism for the development of society. They believe that social conflict is omnipresent, it is the result of competition, but it can be overcome. The whole history of mankind, according to R. Darendorf, is a series of confrontations, from which society always leaves others.
Today, in sociology, two main approaches to the study of conflict coexist: the first explores its structure and types, the second focuses on finding ways to avoid confrontations and explores the realm of peace and harmony.
Kinds
The variety of causes of conflicts leads to the emergence of a large number of classifications of this phenomenon. Traditionally, researchers identify such grounds for typologization and types of social conflicts:
- In the areas of flow. Determining the area of \u200b\u200bdevelopment of the described phenomenon makes it possible to distinguish a socio-psychological conflict, socio-political, socio-economic and national-ethnic.
- By duration. In this case, short-term and long-term conflicts are highlighted.
- By frequency: one-time and repeated.
- By the impact on the development of society: progressive and regressive.
- By type of relationship. There are conflicts between social groups - intergroup and intragroup, between peoples - interethnic, between states - interstate, between state coalitions - global.
- By the intensity of the course. There are acute, protracted, latent or latent conflicts.
Of greatest interest to researchers is the study of conflicts in various fields, since each of them gives rise to a special type of confrontation.
Public and socio-political conflicts
The political sphere often provokes social conflicts in society. Traditionally, these types of confrontations are associated with the fact that power often intervenes in other spheres of people's lives, power structures can act as mediators between different groups in order to level the conflict.
There are such varieties of confrontations in the political sphere:
- Between the branches of power. Conflicting situations sometimes arise between warring factions over the struggle for power.
- Between the institutions of power. The government, parliaments, and senate often come into conflict with each other, this sometimes leads to the resignation of senior officials in the government or the dissolution of parliament, but more often the conflicts are smoothed out so that they can re-emerge.
- Between parties and political movements. The struggle for voters, for the opportunity to form a government always leads to intense competition between parties.
- Between the links of the executive branch. Often there is a conflict of interest between individual structural units of power, which also provokes a confrontation.
The public is not always a participant in such conflicts, more often it is assigned only the role of an observer. But in legal states, people have the ability to influence the resolution of a controversial situation.
Economic conflicts
The sphere of production, entrepreneurship and finance is one of the most controversial. Here, competition is not only not hidden, but even cultivated, and it is always a direct path to confrontation. Socio-economic conflicts often occur in the area of \u200b\u200bcollision between welfare systems and labor.
Uneven income distribution is always a source of social tension and in the potential for conflict. Also, economic conflicts can exist among labor collectives, trade unions, and government. Worker representatives may confront the government under unfair legislation. So, at the beginning of the 20th century, such conflicts led to the widespread establishment of an 8-hour working day. But most often disputes arise between various economic agents. They can protect their property, the right to conduct business, to cover new market segments. The clash of property and commercial interests can cause conflicts that are resolved legally or transferred to the interpersonal level.
Functions
According to its consequences, a social conflict can be destructive or constructive. He is able to benefit society or have a devastating effect on him. The constructive functions of social conflict include:
- Development function. K. Marx also wrote that as a result of conflicts, society carries out evolutionary development.
- Discharge function. The conflict situation allows the parties to express their claims and relieve tension; this helps later find rational constructive solutions to the problem.
- The function of establishing equilibrium. Conflicts contribute to achieving a balance between different groups.
- Axiological function. Conflicts contribute to the reassessment of existing and the establishment of new norms and values.
- Integrative function. During the conflict, groups of people can express their opinions, find like-minded people and unite with them.
Destructive functions include:
- reduced collaboration between social communities;
- increased hostility in society;
- dissatisfaction of the population with life;
- the escalation of hostility, which can lead to open clashes.
Structure of social conflict
Any conflict necessarily has two warring parties that represent different interests. Conflicts of social groups traditionally have the following structure:
- The participants. These are two or more social groups, each of which has its own views and interests. They may be direct and indirect, to varying degrees, interested in the outcome of the confrontation.
- Thing. The main issue, which causes controversy.
- An object. Any conflict has an object, which can be property, power, resources, spiritual achievements: norms, ideas, values.
- Wednesday. Usually emit macro and microenvironment of social conflict. This is the whole context in which the confrontation is formed and proceeds, this includes the social groups and institutions surrounding the participants, strategies and tactics of their behavior, interests and expectations.
Flow stages
In any confrontation, three stages are usually distinguished; the development of social conflicts is not an exception. The first stage is pre-conflict. The tension and the accumulation of contradictions gradually increase, usually at first there are minor frictions and disagreements, which gradually increase and intensify. At this stage, the parties weigh their resources, assess the possible consequences of an open confrontation. There is an accumulation of forces, the consolidation of supporters, the development of a strategy of behavior. This stage can last a very long time and proceed in a muffled form.
The second step is the conflict itself. Usually the trigger of this stage is some kind of action, after which the parties proceed to an open attack. Emotional emotional and rational conflict management.
The third step is conflict resolution. At this stage, events occur that should end with the end of the confrontation. The solution is possible only if the problem situation changes, otherwise the dispute becomes protracted and it becomes more difficult to settle it.
Conflict Resolution Techniques
There are several methods that lead to the end of the confrontation and the solution of the problem. Among the main distinguish compromise. In this case, the resolution of social conflicts occurs through the agreement of the parties and finding a solution that suits everyone. At the same time, everyone makes certain concessions and there is a certain third position with which the conflicting agree.
Consensus is another method of conflict resolution, which is to negotiate and find a solution that satisfies both parties. Usually it is achieved on some issues, while others are simply removed from the agenda, because the parties are satisfied with what has been achieved.
Restoration is a solution method that involves returning to positions that the parties had before entering into conflict.
Social conflict - it is a confrontation between individuals or groups pursuing socially significant goals (distribution of values, resources, power, etc.). It arises when one side seeks to fulfill its interests and goals to the detriment of the interests of others.
Social conflicts can have both positive and negative effects on the development of society. On the one hand, they are a source of socio-political changes, preventing the stagnation of social systems, stimulating the modification of social relations, structures and institutions. In this sense, conflicts act as a form of regulation of the conflicting interests of various groups of society, and contribute to the relaxation of tension in their relations. On the other hand, social conflicts pose a threat to the destabilization of society and can lead to disastrous consequences - revolutions, wars, anarchy.
Social conflicts are caused by a variety of reasons. This is economic and social inequality, a shortage of vital goods (material, spiritual, prestigious, etc.), a different position in relation to power, a mismatch of interests and goals of different social groups, ideological and political differences, confessional contradictions, incompatibility of individual and public values etc.
In modern conditions, each sphere of society creates its own specific conflicts. Here we can distinguish political, socio-economic and national-ethnic conflicts.
- 1. Political Conflicts -
these are conflicts over the distribution of power, dominance, influence, authority. They arise from differences of interests, rivalry and struggle in the process of acquiring, redistributing and exercising political and state power. Political conflicts are associated with consciously formed goals of gaining leading positions in the institutions and structures of political power. The main political conflicts include:
- - conflicts between branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial);
- - conflicts within parliament;
- - conflicts between political parties and movements; - conflicts between the various parts of the administrative apparatus, etc.
In the modern history of Russia, one of the forms of manifestation of a political conflict was a long confrontation between the executive and legislative branches, which led to the dramatic events of October 1993. A partial resolution of this conflict was the election of the Federal Assembly and the adoption of the new Constitution of Russia. However, the causes of the conflict were not completely eliminated, and he moved to a new stage of his development, taking the form of confrontation between the President and the Federal Assembly. And only at the present time there has been a constructive interaction between the executive and legislative branches.
2. Socio-economic conflicts - these are conflicts over livelihoods, the level of wages, the use of professional and intellectual potential, the level of prices for goods and services, access to the distribution of material and spiritual goods.
Socio-economic conflicts arise on the basis of dissatisfaction, primarily, with the economic situation, which is considered either as a deterioration compared to the usual level of consumption (a real conflict of needs), or as a worse situation compared to other social groups (conflict of interest). In the second case, a conflict can arise even if there is some improvement in living conditions, if it is perceived as insufficient or inadequate.
In modern Russian society, many socio-economic conflicts develop along the lines of "labor collectives - state administration." Along with the requirements for raising wages, living standards, eliminating wage arrears and paying pensions, the demands of collectives to assert their rights to property of enterprises are more often put forward. Such requirements are addressed primarily to state authorities, which are the main subjects of property redistribution.
Mass conflicts in the economic sphere are often associated with the fact that the country still lacks a clearly developed legal framework for resolving labor disputes. The conciliation commissions and their arbitrations do not fully realize their functions, and administrative authorities in some cases do not fulfill the agreements reached. All this poses the task of creating a more effective legislative system for regulating labor conflicts.
3. Ethnic conflicts - these are conflicts that arise during the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups. Most often, these conflicts are related to status or territorial claims. In modern Russia, the dominant factor in conflicts was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe sovereignty of territories, people, or ethnic groups. Until the adoption of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation in 1993, almost all regions fought for an increase in status: autonomous regions sought to become republics, republics declared their sovereignty and independence. In extreme cases, the question was raised of secession from Russia and full state independence (the most striking example is the conflict in Chechnya).
Quite widespread in our country are territorial conflicts arising between closely residing ethnic groups (Ossetian-Ingush, Dagestan-Chechen conflicts). It should be noted that such conflicts are deliberately provoked by various forces of a nationalist, separatist, fanatical-religious sense.
Thus, conflicts arising in the political and socio-economic spheres, in the field of interethnic relations, pose the greatest danger to society. In modern Russia, which is experiencing a difficult transitional period, conflicts have become an everyday reality. It is important to learn how to manage them, to achieve the consent of the conflicting parties.
Modern conflictology has formulated the conditions under which a successful resolution of social conflicts is possible. One of the important conditions is a timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict, i.e. identification of existing contradictions, interests, goals. Another, no less important condition is mutual interest in overcoming contradictions on the basis of recognition of the interests of the opposite side. This can be achieved on the basis of a goal that is significant for both parties. The third indispensable condition is a joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Here it is possible to use a whole arsenal of tools and methods: direct dialogue between the parties, negotiations through an intermediary, negotiations with the participation of a third party, etc.
Conflict management has also developed a number of recommendations, following which accelerates the process of conflict resolution: I) during negotiations, priority should be given to the discussion of substantive issues; 2) the parties should strive to relieve psychological and social tension; 3) the parties must demonstrate mutual respect for each other; 4) all participants must be inclined towards compromise.
An external sign of conflict resolution is the completion of an incident. Elimination of the incident is a necessary but not sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. Often, having ceased active conflict interaction, people continue to experience a tense state and look for its cause. And then the fading conflict flared up again. Full resolution of a social conflict is possible only when the conflict situation changes. This change can take various forms, but the most radical change is one that eliminates the causes of the conflict. It is also possible to resolve a social conflict by changing the requirements of one of the parties: the opponent makes concessions and changes the goals of his behavior in the conflict.
Of great importance is the final, post-conflict stage. At this stage, the contradictions at the level of interests and goals must be finally eliminated, as well as measures taken to relieve socio-psychological tension and stop any struggle.
In modern Russia, it is important to make social conflicts (primarily shadow, implicit, latent) public, as open as possible. This will allow them to be brought under control and to respond in a timely manner to processes occurring during the confrontation of the parties. And here the media, public opinion and other civil society institutions can play a large role.
In sociology, modernization is primarily understood as the transition from a traditional society to a continuously changing modern industrial society. According to the definition of the famous American sociologist N. Smelser, modernization is a complex set of economic, social, cultural, political changes taking place in society in connection with the process of industrialization, the development of scientific and technological achievements.
The theory of modernization was developed mainly in relation to developing countries. Nevertheless, it largely explains the process of reforming any society, its transformation on the model of the advanced countries of the world. Modernization covers almost all aspects of society - the economy, social relations, spiritual life, the political sphere.
In the field of economics modernization involves the use of scientific knowledge and modern technology; deepening professional specialization; the formation of markets for goods, capital, labor; development of entrepreneurship and market relations; increasing the independence of the economy from politics; separation of production and workplace from family economy; increasing agricultural productivity, developing farms, etc. Structural changes in the economy are accompanied by increased social mobility, mass migration from rural areas to large cities, the transformation of traditional social structures, higher living standards of the population, etc.
In the socio-political sphere the main manifestations of modernization are the formation of the rule of law, the democratization of the political system, party pluralism, the growth of social activity of the population and its participation in political life, the establishment of civil society institutions, the improvement of the political culture of citizens, the development of mass media and communication.
In the spiritual and cultural sphere modernization involves the spread of the values \u200b\u200bof individualism, the progress of science and education, the rationalization of consciousness, the formation of moral prerequisites for new forms of economic activity, secularization and the growing diversity of spiritual life. The essence of changes in this area is conveyed by the concept of "modernity" as a complex characteristic of the culture of modern Western society.
The culture of "modernity" means a commitment to rationalism and scientism, focus on the growth of material production and technological progress, attitude to nature as an object of application of one's own forces and knowledge. It is also the idea of \u200b\u200bequal opportunities and personal freedom, individualism, the attitude towards success, a person’s readiness for constant changes and the desire to initiate such changes.
Depending on the nature and timing of the implementation, two types of modernization are distinguished: primary (organic) and secondary (inorganic). Primary modernization refers to the period of the industrial revolution that began in the UK in the 60s. XVIII century .. and after several decades swept the United States, France, Germany and other Western countries. This modernization took place naturally, on the basis of its own socio-economic, political and socio-cultural prerequisites, and met the internal needs of social development. It organically flowed from the entire previous evolution of society and its historical preparedness for comprehensive, profound changes.
Secondary modernization, associated mainly with the developing countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America, is not an organic result of the natural course of the evolution of society. It is largely dictated from the outside: the desire to enter the world community, adapt to a new geopolitical reality, and give an answer to the "challenge" from other countries. This is a peculiar way of “catching up with development,” when the authorities carry out reforms to overcome the country's historical backwardness.
Such modernization is usually carried out by attracting foreign investment, borrowing advanced technology, purchasing foreign equipment, inviting foreign specialists, studying abroad, etc. Corresponding changes are taking place in the political and social spheres: the management system is radically changing, new structures and institutions of power are being created, the country's constitution is being reconstructed according to Western standards, a new legislative system is being formulated, and relations between the state and society are being reviewed. An important socio-psychological factor in this case is the so-called demonstration effect, the desire to imitate the style and lifestyle of the richest, most developed countries.
Secondary modernization, as it were, is artificially introduced “from above”, it is inorganic for the socio-economic and spiritual system of society, violates its unity and historical continuity of development. Therefore, the majority of the population is often not ready for it and does not provide the necessary social support. All this determines the complex and sometimes contradictory nature of modernization processes in various countries.
However, in a number of cases, secondary modernization may succeed when countries, as a result of their conduct, begin to develop on their own basis. This happened in Japan, which took only two decades to catch up and, in some respects, even get around the United States, from where it originally borrowed advanced technology.
As for Russia, so far, modernization has not brought the expected results. An effective mechanism of a market economy has not been debugged in the country, there is no civilized free enterprise, a high standard of living and social protection of the population are not ensured, there is no support for small businesses, and there is no large middle class that determines the stability and welfare of society. At the same time, the high scientific and intellectual potential of Russian society nourishes a certain hope for the prosperous prospects for the development of modernization processes in our country.
It should be noted that at present, theorists of modernization are largely revising their conceptual settings. This is due to a new look at the role of traditional institutions and cultures, the identification of their ability to organically integrate into modernization processes, ensuring the integrity and spiritual unity of society. Thus, the juxtaposition of traditional and industrial societies is no longer regarded as a rigid antithesis, but as a moving relationship due to the dynamism of the traditional principle, its ability to change and adapt to modern conditions.
There is no human community in which there are no contradictions and clashes between its members. Man is no less inclined to hostility and clashes than to cooperation.
Rivalry often results in open clashes, in conflicts. We define social conflict as an attempt to achieve reward by removing, subordinating, or even physically eliminating rivals. Conflicts pervaded the whole life of society, and we can observe them everywhere - from an elementary fight or a family quarrel to wars between states.
The causes of social conflicts can be divided into two large groups. We designate them as personal and social. These two groups of causes are interdependent.
The causes of social conflicts may be incompatibility of interestsand goals relevant social groups. The presence of this reason was indicated by E. Durkheim and T. Parsons.
The cause of social conflicts may be incompatibility of individualand public values. Each individual has a set of value orientations relative to the most significant aspects of social life. But when meeting the needs of some groups, obstacles arise from other groups. At the same time, opposing value orientations are manifested, which can cause a conflict. For example, there is a different attitude to property: some believe that property should be state-owned, others favor private property, and others seek cooperative property. Under certain conditions, supporters of different forms of ownership may come into conflict with each other.
The main social prerequisites for conflicts are:
1) Social inequality - i.e., the uneven distribution between members of society and groups of wealth, influence, information, respect and other social resources. Experts in the field of conflict sociology note that the social position of people and the nature of their claims depend on access to the distribution of values \u200b\u200b(income, knowledge, information, elements of culture, etc.). The quest for universal equality, as history has shown, cannot be regarded as a blessing, because it leads to equalization, the extinction of many incentives for creative activity and initiative.
In fairness, it is worth noting that it is impossible to satisfy the interests and needs of all comers. Therefore, inequality, including socialunremovable. The conflict arises with such a degree of inequality when it is regarded by one of the social groups as very significant, preventing the satisfaction of its needs. The resulting social tension leads to social conflicts.
2) Social disorganization. Society is a system, that is, an organized integrity that has the ability to spontaneously adapt to emerging difficulties. However, there are so threatening crisis situations that the social system falls into a state of total chaos and discord. In such cases, the prevailing familiar balance between the processes of destruction and creation is violated, the collapse of social production begins, the crisis of political power begins, the basic ideologies and accepted moral and cultural norms are devalued and lose their attractiveness.
There comes anomie - a state of uncontrollability - lack of norms. This implies the growth of aggression, the insecurity of life, property and dignity of citizens due to the weakening of social control and the legal system, the disorganization of society and its legal institutions. In such a situation, the state and society lose their ability to restrain the negative energy of decay, and a kind of “war of all against all” begins. A conflict situation is forming.
3) Cultural heterogeneity - that is, the coexistence in society of different value systems, different ideas about the world, different behavioral standards (compare the subculture of the criminal world with its specific values \u200b\u200bthat are opposite to the rest of a law-abiding society).
But social premises alone do not necessarily lead to
to conflict clashes. The subjects of conflicts in the end are always specific people - either individuals or people united in groups. In order for the social preconditions of the conflict to really lead to conflict, personal involvement, awareness of the injustice of the situation is necessary.
4) The objective and subjective causes of social conflicts are linked together in the phenomenon social deprivation.
S. V. Sokolov defines deprivation as a contradiction between subjective expectations in relation to the realization of one’s own interests and objective opportunities to realize them: “Deprivation is a discrepancy between the interests-expectations (state of consciousness) of the subject and the real possibilities of their satisfaction in practice”. Deprivation is felt by the individual as a sharp disappointment, experienced with a feeling of oppression, causes the individual to become estranged from the society in which he lives. Deprivation arising from chronic dissatisfaction with fundamental vital needs: security needs, food, treatment, etc., is especially painful.
On the other hand, the lack of the necessary satisfaction of spiritual needs is also associated with deprivation: for example, believers should live in accordance with their religious beliefs and norms, have the opportunity to pray, go to church, but society is not always ready to provide them with this, as it was in the USSR in the era of forced atheism. American researchers C. Glock and R. Stark highlight the body deprivation experienced by people with disabilities and those with serious illnesses, the severity of which can be minimized if society cares for physically disabled people.
Deprivation is the cause of social conflict precisely because it causes strong negative emotions. However, the dynamics of the development of deprivation is multidirectional: the feeling of deprivation can increase up to the formation of an open conflict; it can remain at the same level or decrease.
A change in the state of deprivation occurs if the above reasoning changes in the direction of expansion or contraction:
Or if the needs and interests of people change (decrease, primitivize, or vice versa, expand), and the level of their satisfaction with society remains the same;
Or if the needs and interests remain the same, and the objective level of satisfaction is changing; or, finally, if there is a change in both needs and the quality of their satisfaction.
With increasing deprivation, social tension also grows accordingly: large masses of people dissatisfied with their lives are ready to open conflict according to the catchphrase from the “Communist Manifesto”: “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains, they will gain the whole world.” In this case, the conflict becomes the only way for deprived groups to achieve a more complete satisfaction of their needs.
Thus, we can conclude that the main personal motive for the conflict is an unmet need. There are many diverse and highly detailed typologies of human needs. We give here the most simple.
Human needs can be divided into the following groups:
1) the needs of physical existence (food, material well-being, the need for procreation, etc.);
2) the need for security;
3) social needs (the need for communication, recognition, love, respect, etc.);
4) higher needs (in creativity, spiritual growth, etc.). These
Needs are not manifested in all people, but if they express themselves, they are able to push aside all other needs, minimizing them.
When a need is not satisfied, a person experiences discontent, anxiety, fear and other negative emotions. The longer the state of dissatisfaction lasts, the stronger these emotions, the worse the state of a person.
How does a person act in a situation of dissatisfaction? Three behaviors are possible:
1) you can retreat, stop striving to meet needs;
2) look for a workaround to meet needs;
3) through aggression to achieve the desired.
The third way most often leads to conflicts (the second is also fraught with the emergence of a conflict situation, if it leads to a clash with the prevailing norms in society). The object of aggression is that object that impedes the satisfaction of needs. This can be a person, a group, society as a whole (since it is difficult to attack the whole society, aggression is directed at those who are “responsible” for the situation in society). The one to whom aggression is directed responds with an aggressive action. So there is a conflict.
The object of aggression can be determined incorrectly, that is, the culprit of the situation is one who is not. This phenomenon is called false identification and is very common. False identification may occur involuntarily as a result of an error. However, it is possible to manipulate the consciousness of excited people, to set them on objectionable persons or groups, usually undertaken by those who benefit from such misinformation.
However, unmet needs alone do not lead
to conflicts. If a person or group perceives their depressed, restrained position as something ordinary, familiar, embedded in the “course of things” itself, then the conflict may not arise. The basis of the conflict is the awareness of the injustice of the situation (naturally, from the point of view of the interested party). But even in such conditions, the conflict does not always arise. Uncertainty of the consequences of a future conflict, fear of retaliation, disorganization (when it comes to communities) prevent conflicts.
The role of unmet need for conflict is obvious if we are dealing with a conflict of individuals or small groups. But if it is a conflict of states? What role does “unmet need” play in this case? The "state" in itself can neither make decisions nor enter into conflicts.
Only people can make decisions, enter into conflicts. The policies of any state are also determined by specific people - members of the government, presidents, etc. It is they who decide what is the "need" of a particular state at the moment. Therefore, even in global conflicts such as wars between states, the importance of personal motives is very great. But in relation to such cases, it is better to speak not about “satisfying needs”, but about “protecting the interests” of the subjects of the conflict (while remembering the subjective nature of the interpretation of these interests).
A society with social inequality embedded in its structure is potentially fraught with conflict. In every society there are groups whose needs are not regularly met and interests are ignored.
Society provokes conflicts not only through social inequality. Each society has certain cultural models that its members must conform to. Social role systems prescribe certain types of behaviors. This leads to the fact that people who do not meet these standards find themselves either in isolation or in a state of conflict with the social environment.
The degree of conflict in society increases in situations of anomie, political and economic crises. The instability of the situation and the uncertainty of the norms lead, firstly, to the fact that more and more people do not satisfy their needs, and secondly, it is easier for people to “step over" the limits of what is permissible, since these "frames" in an anomic society lose their clarity (as an example, serve Russia post-Soviet period).
An important feature of crisis societies is the widespread sense of insecurity and fear. And this is accompanied by an increase in aggressiveness, which not only provokes conflicts, but also toughens their character.
Lecture:
Social conflict
Despite the fact that conflicts leave unpleasant memories, it is completely impossible to avoid them, because this is one of the ways people interact. In the process of his life, a person finds himself in various conflict situations that arise even for a minor reason.
Social conflict - a way of social interaction, which consists in the clash and confrontation of opposing interests, goals and methods of action individuals or groups.
In their attitude to the conflict, people were divided into two groups. Some perceive it as stress and seek to eliminate the causes of the conflict. Others consider it a natural and inevitable form of human relations and are convinced that a person should be able to be in it without experiencing excessive stress and excitement.
Subjects of conflict are not only the warring parties themselves, but also
- instigators that encourage people to conflict,
- accomplices pushing participants with their advice, technical assistance to conflict actions,
- mediators seeking to prevent, stop or resolve a conflict,
witnesses watching events from the side.
Consequences of social conflict
Despite the undesirability of conflicts, they nevertheless perform the functions necessary for society. Social conflicts are positive if
- inform about the painfulness of any part of the social system, about the existence of social tension and mobilize to solve existing problems;
- stimulate changes and renewal of social relations, social institutions or the entire social system as a whole;
- reinforce group cohesion or encourage subjects of conflict to cooperate.
Negative parties to the conflict are
creating stressful situations;
destabilization of social life;
distraction from solving their job tasks.
| Types of Social Conflicts
|
|
| By duration
| short-term, long-term and long |
| By frequency | one-time and repeated |
| Organization Level
| individual, group, regional, local and global |
| By type of relationship
| intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup and interethnic |
| In content | economic, political, legal, labor, family, ideological, religious, etc. |
| By factors | rational and emotional |
| By degree of openness
| hidden and explicit |
| In shape | internal (with oneself) and external (with other people) |
Stages of Social Conflict
In its development, social conflict goes through four stages or stages:
Conflict begins with pre-conflict situation consisting of two phases. In the latent (latent) phase, the conflict situation is only being formed, and in the open phase, the parties are aware of the occurrence of the conflict situation and feel the tension.
The next step is the conflict itself . This is the main stage of the conflict, which also consists of two phases. In the first phase, the parties form a psychological orientation to the struggle, they openly defend their innocence and seek to suppress the enemy. And the people around (instigators, accomplices, mediators, witnesses) by their actions form the conditions for the course of the conflict. They can exacerbate, contain conflict, or remain neutral. In the second phase, a turning point and revaluation of values \u200b\u200boccurs. At this phase, there are several options for the behavior of the parties to the conflict: bringing it to the peak of tension, mutual concessions, or full resolution.
The choice of the third behavior option indicates the transition of the conflict to completion stage confrontation.
Post-conflict phase characterized by the final settlement of contradictions and the peaceful interaction of the parties to the conflict.
What are the ways to resolve the conflict? There are several of them:
- Avoidance - evasion of conflict, suppression of the problem (this method does not resolve the conflict, but only temporarily mitigates or delays it).
- Compromise - solving the problem through mutual concessions satisfying all the warring parties.
- Conversation - peaceful exchange of proposals, opinions, arguments aimed at finding a joint solution to the existing problem.
- Mediation - involving a third party to resolve the conflict.
- Arbitration - appeal to an authoritative authority endowed with special powers and complying with legislative norms (for example, the administration of an institution, a court).