Sensation
Analyzers
Sensation Properties:
Types of sensations:
General characteristics of perception as a mental process
Perception is a psycho-cognitive process of reflection in the human mind, objects and phenomena of the real world in their integrity with a direct impact on the senses. Based on sensation, perception arises.
Perception Properties:
1. Selectivity of Perception - the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of interest to him.
2. The subjectivity of perception - perception is directed to the subject of reality.
3. Perception integrity - perception gives a holistic image of the object.
4. Constancy - this is the ability to maintain the constancy of some properties of objects when conditions change.
Types of perception:
1. Dependence on the modality of the stimulus (visual perception, taste, auditory);
2. Depending on the form of reflection: the perception of space (form, size), the perception of time, the perception of movement.
3. Depending on the volitional efforts: voluntary, involuntary.
4. Perceptual impairment: autologous - associated with a violation of the cerebral cortex (agnosia - the difficulty of recognizing objects), derealization - a person loses orientation; situational disturbances - illusions, hallucinations.
General characteristics of memory processes: memorization, storage, forgetting, reproduction
Memory - the process of remembering, preserving and reproducing a person's images, thoughts, emotions, movements, i.e. of everything that makes up each individual experience.
Memory is a prerequisite for learning, acquiring knowledge, forming skills and abilities of a person. Without it, behavior, thinking, consciousness and the subconscious are impossible.
Memory provides the unity and integrity of the human person.
There are three main processes of memory:
1. Memorization - the process of memory, as a result of which a new one is captured by associating it with a previously acquired one.
2. Preservation, i.e. organization and retention of information. It can be dynamic (the material changes little) and statistical (the material is necessarily transformed, processed). Disappearance from memory is oblivion. Storage and forgetting are different characteristics of one process.
3. Play - the process of extracting stored material from memory;
3.1. Play - This is the process of the appearance of previously reproduced thoughts in the mind. It is carried out in the following forms: recognition (occurs when the object is re-perceived) and memory (occurs when the object is not perceived).
Types of memory:
1. Clearly shaped (memory for visual, sound, tactile and other images).
2. Verbal-logical (memory for the meaning of the presentation, its logic - is inherent only to man).
3. Movement memory (It underlies the development of walking skills, writing, labor and other skills).
4. Emotional memory for experiences (of great importance for personality formation).
Speech and language. The essence and definition of speech. Speech classification.
Speech–– this is the process of communication through all kinds of communication tools (words, gestures, intonation, facial expressions, etc.) (verbal);
Speech Is a process of communication using natural language, i.e. using words.
Functions:
1. To interact with other people.
2. To exchange information.
3. To enrich the knowledge of previous generations.
Kinds:
1. The internal (verbal form of thinking), the result of which are thoughts.
2. External speech (a means of communication between people) can be spoken (communication through sounding of characters. It is divided into monologue and dialogue) and written (communication through written characters).
Speech Properties:
1. The meaningfulness (meaningfulness) of speech determined by the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and relevance to reality.
2. Speech content - This is the competent use of words, pauses and intonation.
3. Expressiveness of speech associated with her emotional richness.
Violation of the properties of speech leads to distortion or violation of speech.
The essence and function of emotions.
Emotions - these are processes that reflect the value and assessment of external and internal situations for human life.
Functions of emotions:
1. This is a way to maintain life processes at optimal boundaries.
2. Emotions often indicate a lack or excess of external and internal factors.
Currently, six basic emotions are especially well studied:
1. Joy is an active positive emotion expressed in a good mood and a feeling of pleasure.
2. Woe is a deep sadness over the loss of someone or something valuable that is necessary. It comes down to suffering, sadness, despondency.
3. Fear is an emotion that reflects a defensive reaction when experiencing a real or imaginary danger to a person’s health or well-being.
4. Anger can be caused by personal insult, deception or an indefinable obstacle on the way to the goal. 5. Disgust, like contempt, is a specific manifestation of hostility.
6. Surprise arises when a person meets a new object. Surprise is an experience of captivity, curiosity.
The oldest and simplest form of experience is pleasure and displeasure.
The following are distinguished in the emotional life of a person manifestations of emotion:
1. Sensual tone. It is associated with the experience of pleasure or displeasure in the process of sensation. An emotional tone of sensations is characterized by a response to individual properties of objects or phenomena, a pleasant or unpleasant smell or taste of products. Sensual tone is a reaction to a separate stimulus.
2. Mood - This is an emotion that stains human behavior for a long time. Mood is the emotional tone at the moment.
3. Affect - This is a powerful emotional reaction, a relatively short emotional experience. Affect fully embraces the psyche and determines a single human reaction to the situation.
4. Passion - this is a complex emotional experience peculiar only to a person, it is an alloy of emotions, motives, feelings, concentrated around any object, phenomenon or person.
5. Feelings - this is experienced in various forms of a person’s attitude to objects and phenomena to reality.
Characteristics of emotions and feelings:
1. They are personal (subjective) in nature.
2. They carry information about reality and are related to human needs.
3. Polarity (joy-grief; fun-sorrow; love-hate).
4. Integrality - emotions and feelings cover the whole organism.
5. Emotions and feelings are associated with the life of the body.
For a comfortable existence, a person should know how to manage emotions and feelings. The absence of an external manifestation of emotions and feelings does not mean that a person does not experience them. As you know, he can hide his experiences, drive them inside. Such containment leads to various diseases and neuroses. Therefore, the desire to suppress emotions is fundamentally wrong, but the ability to regulate their manifestation is absolutely necessary.
Motivation and motives.
Need is an internal source of human activity, motive is external.
Under motive any thoughts, aspirations, feelings of a person associated with the recognition of certain needs, prompting him to activity, are understood. The motive is not the need itself, but some object in which the need is concretized. It encourages man to action.
Motive Functions:
1. Prompting (human activation).
2. Guide (determines the choice, implementation of the strategy and tactics of activity and behavior).
3. Manager (correction of behavior).
Motivation - The process of forming human motives;
Motivation - Motivation for a specific action or behavior.
Some of the motivational factors, when they are consciously and continuously used by a person, can transform into his personal traits.
A person’s motivational sphere is formed and develops in direct connection with the system of activities and social relations in which he is involved as he grows up.
Unmet needs are the cause of disorders of the motivational sphere, manifested in neurasthenia, hysteria, and neurosis of obsessive states.
Temperament.
Temperament - a set of natural, individually-unique properties of the human psyche that determine the dynamics, speed and intensity of the course of mental processes.
The creator of the doctrine of temperament is an ancient Greek doctor Hippocrates, who lived in the V century BC.
Types of temperament:
Choleric in communication, strives for superiority, dominates conversation, in interpersonal relations, tries to establish his power, is self-confident, angrily reacts to criticism, expressive and diverse facial expressions. Unbalanced behavior, sometimes aggressive. Possesses patience. Passionately and enthusiastically joins in an activity interesting to him. Demonstrates a desire for a goal. Reevaluates its abilities and capabilities. It is characterized by moderate suggestibility.
Sanguine communicates with people on equal terms, seeks to expand the circle of acquaintances, the initiator of communication, has a sense of humor, self-esteem is somewhat overstated, calmly reacts to criticism, diverse facial expressions, lively, artistic. In dangerous situations prudent. When striving for a goal, he demonstrates energy, a desire to achieve it faster and at the same time avoid obstacles. Suggestibility can be assessed as small.
Phlegmatic person is passive in communication, is never the initiator of communication or dating, self-esteem is somewhat underestimated, not inclined to the external expression of feelings and feelings, facial expressions are inexpressive. The behavior is usually restrained and balanced. He has a lot of patience. In case of danger, shows composure. The phlegmatic walks toward the goal slowly, but at the same time persists. Suggestibility is weak.
Melancholic in communication is in a dependent position, easily falls under the power of other people, self-esteem is steadily low, insecure, hard to bear criticism in his address, facial expressions are not rich. The behavior is unbalanced and hysterical. In dangerous situations, demonstrates confusion. Suggestibility is big.
Character.
Character - a set of stable individual personality traits that take shape and manifest in activity and communication.
A character trait is understood to mean certain features of a person’s personality that are systematically manifested in various types of his activity and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions.
Personality traits - features of human behavior that are systematically (but not constantly) manifested in various situations.
The following four components can be distinguished in the character structure:
1. Self-attitude (self-confidence, uncertainty, self-esteem, etc.).
2. Attitude to the case (hard work, accuracy, passivity, etc.).
3. Attitude to other people (patriotism, deceit, selfishness, etc.).
4. Attitude to own.
According to the predominant influence of the psyche on human activity, intellectual, emotional and volitional character traits are distinguished, according to the time of formation - primary (basic) and secondary (situational), in the field of activity - business (manifested in professional activity) and communication (manifested in communication) character traits .
A person who has a lack or ambiguity of life goals is called spineless.
Relationship of character and temperament has many options for explanation. Character is formed on the basis of temperament, the social environment has a decisive influence on character formation, character determines the content of human behavior and activity. Unlike temperament, a person’s character is formed during life, can be changed by exercises and training, and is formed under the influence of social factors.
Character formation - a process that covers the whole life of a person. In preschool age, the primary character traits are formed. The first signs of stabilization of character occur between the ages of 2-3 to 9-10 years. At the age of 7-15 years, a school attitude towards people is formed. Volitional character traits develop and consolidate in adolescence, and the basic (moral and ideological) foundations of character - in early adolescence. At the age of 15-17 years, a person gains a high characterological stability, which is maintained throughout the whole such features as kindness, responsiveness, sociability of life are formed. After 30 years, the likelihood of character changes decreases dramatically.
The excessive severity of individual character traits and their combinations is called accentuation (limit value of the manifestation of the norm).
General characteristics of sensation as a mental process
Sensation - this is a psycho-cognitive process of reflection of individual properties of reality that directly affect a person at a given moment. The physiological basis of sensation is associated with the work of analyzers.
Analyzers - these are the channels through which a person receives information about reality.
Analyzers consist of three parts:
1. Receptors (nerve endings) - the sensory organ (eyes, mouth, skin).
2. Conducting nerve pathways through which nerve signals are transmitted to the brain.
3. The central cortical departments of the analyzers, where the “processing” of nerve signals from the receptors takes place.
Sensation Properties:
1. The intensity of the sensation is the degree of the sensation experienced.
2. The duration of sensations is the length of time from the moment the stimulus begins to act until the sensation occurs.
3. The latent period of sensation is the length of time from the moment the stimulus begins to act until the sensation occurs.
4. The consequence of sensations is the length of time from the moment the stimulus ends until the sensation completely disappears.
Types of sensations:
1. The following types of sensations are distinguished by the shape of the stimulus: visual, auditory, olfactory, skin, and taste.
2. By the level of awareness: conscious, unconscious.
3. At the location of the receptors: exteroreceptive - reflect the properties of objects and environmental phenomena (visual, olfactory, taste, etc.); interoreceptive - reflect the state of internal organs (pain, a sense of balance, acceleration); propreoceptive - reflect the movement of our body (for example, musculoskeletal sensations provide information about the position of the body in space, the movement of the body and its parts, muscle contraction or stretching).
Sensory impairment: color blindness, deafness, etc.
General concept of sensations and their functions. The physiological basis of sensations
The primary contact of a person with the surrounding world and his own organism, giving him basic information about the conditions and conditions of the external and internal environment, occurs through sensations. Under the sensation is understoodpsychophysical knowledge of the individual properties of phenomena and objects of the objective world, i.e. the process of reflecting the direct impact of stimuli on the sensory organs, irritations of the latter. Sensation is a subjective (mental) experience arising from this process strength, quality,localization and other characteristics of the impact on the senses
Sensation Functions:
First, with the help of the senses, the human body receives in the form of sensations a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment. And as a result, an adequate reflection of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself arises
Thirdly, sensations are not only a source of our knowledge about the world, but also our feelings and emotions
A person has a STRONG need to receive impressions of the world in the form of sensations
The doctrine of sensation states that objects and their properties are primary, while sensations are the result of the influence of matter on the organs of senses! At the same time, sensations reflect the world as it exists.
There are other views on the nature of sensations. On the one hand, sensations are seen as the only reality. On the other hand, it is a concept for which sensations are only conventional signs, symbols of external influences.
a mechanical stimulus can cause a sensation of pressure, sound or light, depending on whether it acts on the skin, ear or eyes. Based on these facts, I. Müller put forward the hypothesis of the specific energy of the senses. The essence of this hypothesis is that sensations do not reflect the real properties of the stimulus, but
only signal the status of our analyzers. That is, according to this idea, sensation does not depend on the quality of the stimulus, but on the specific energy of the sensory organ that this stimulus acts on. “What our sensations give us reflects the nature and condition of our senses, nerves, and not the nature of what causes these sensations,” wrote I. Müller. The conclusion drawn by I. Muller is that not
there are similarities between our sensations and objects of the outside world. However, even if in some cases we feel the world is not what it really is, our feelings are generally adequate to the world, as they allow us to effectively navigate in the environment.
So, sensations are subjective images of the objective world
sensation as a mental phenomenon in the absence of an organism response or inadequacy is impossible. In this sense, the motionless eye is as blind as the motionless hand ceases to be an instrument of knowledge. The physiological basis of sensation is the neuro-physiological process that takes place in the analyzer. Analyzer -
a term introduced by I.P. Pavlov to designate the functional unit responsible for receiving and analyzing sensory information of any one modality. The analyzer is divided into three departments.
The first of these is the receptive organ or receptor, designed to convert the energy of stimulation into the process of nervous excitement. The second section is a conductor, consisting of afferent nerves and pathways, through which impulses are transmitted to the overlying sections of the central nervous system.
The third is the central section, which consists of relay subcortical nuclei and projection sections of the cerebral cortex. For sensation to occur, the coordinated activity of all three links is necessary.
The action of the stimulus on the receptor causes the appearance of irritation. The beginning of this irritation is expressed in the transformation of external energy into an internal process that is produced by the receptor. From the receptor, this process reaches the nuclear part of the analyzer along the centripetal nerve. When the excitation reaches the cortical cells of the analyzer, an organism responds to irritation. We experience light, sound, taste, or other qualities of irritants.
excitation, in turn, is transformed into a mental image - the result of the combined activity of all three parts of the analyzer. Therefore, we can say that sensation is the transformation of the energy of external irritation into a fact of consciousness
Types of sensations, their characteristics
by modalities
emit visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, taste sensations, sensations of movement and balance
English physiologist C. Sherringtonproposed sensation classification based on anatomical receptor anatomyand their functions. He identified three main classes of sensations: exteroceptive, proprioceptive, and
interoceptive.
Exteroceptive sensations occur with the action of noreceptors located on the surface of the body. are the main group of sensations connecting a person with the environment.
In turn, exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and distant. Contactfeel
caused by the impact of the object on the senses. - touch and taste. Distantsensations reflect the quality of objects located at some distance from the senses — hearing and vision
the sense of smell is intermediate between contact and distant sensations, since
sensations arise at a distance from the object, but at the same time, the molecules characterizing the smell of the object with which the olfactory receptor is contacted belong to this object
Proprioceptive sensations reflect the movement and relative position of body parts due to the work of receptors located in the muscles, tendons and joint bags
Interoceptive (organic) sensations signal with the help of special receptors about the course of metabolic processes in the internal environment of the body. The receptors for these sensations are located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. Interceptors perceive the main
the effect of chemical agents (for example, on the digestive tract). This is the oldest and most elementary group of perceptions. In addition, interoceptive sensations are among the least recognized forms of sensations and always remain close to emotional states. It should also be noted that interoceptive sensations are often called organic.
there are sensations that cannot be associated with any particular modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include, for example, vibrational sensitivity connecting the motor sphere with the auditory one.
According to most researchers, vibrational feeling is an intermediate, transitional form between tactile and auditory sensitivity.
Genetic classificationallows you to distinguish two types of sensitivity: protopathic (more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which include organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.) and epicritical (more finely differentiated, objectified and rational), which include the main
types of human sensations. Epicritical sensitivity is younger genetically, and it controls protopathic sensitivity.
Visualsensations are caused by exposure to the eye of light. waves of a certain length cause a person to feel a certain color. Thus, visual sensations are sensations of color. All colors are divided into two large groups: colors achromatic(white, black and gray) andchromatic
auditory sensations are caused by mechanical influences associated with periodic changes in atmospheric pressure in the corresponding range. All sounds that a person perceives can be divided into two groups: musical(sounds of singing, musical instruments, etc.) and noises(all kinds of creaks, rustles, knocks, etc.). Auditory sensations vary in height, volume and timbre. Heightdepends on the frequency of the sound wave
Volume)determined mainly vibration amplitude(intensity) of the sound wave, but also depends on the frequency. The unit of measurement for sound volume is decibels. Timbrodistinguishes from each other sounds of the same pitch and intensity emitted by different sources. The timbre is spoken of as a “paint” of sound. Differences in timbre between two sounds are determined by the variety of forms of sound vibrations.
Taste - the perception of the properties of irritants acting on the mouth receptors in the form of taste sensations. There are four main options or modalities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. Taste sensations in most cases are mixed with olfactory. The variety of taste depends heavily on
olfactory impurities
Sense of smell - a type of sensation that reflects the chemical properties of volatile substances (called odors). Smells for humans are signs of an infinite number of objects and phenomena. In the construction of olfactory (as well as taste) sensations, the so-called chemoreretpores.These include exteroceptors of taste and smell and numerous interoceptors of internal organs, sensitive to the concentration of carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc. In addition to chemoreceptors, other receptors of the oral mucosa can also play a role in the construction of olfactory sensations: tactile, pain, temperature. Currently, a scheme is used that includes four main
odor: aromatic, sour, burnt, putrefactive, the intensity of which is estimated on a conventional scale from 0 to 8. You should pay attention to the fact that “the sensitivity of olfactory and taste buds increases with hunger
Skin sensitivity, or touch -it is the most widely presented and widespread type of sensation throughout the body. Skin sensations relate to the contact form of sensations, that is, they arise when the receptor is in direct contact with the subject of the real world. This may cause sensations.
four main types: sensations of touch (tactile), sensations of cold, heat and pain
There are tactile sensations: passive and active; monomanual and bimanual; direct, instrumental.
Active sense of touch-the process of forming a tactile image of an object during its feeling
At passivetouch - the tactile image of the contour of an object is formed as a result of its successive movement relative to a motionless hand or fingers. Under these conditions, an image is formed on the basis of only tactile signals.
Instrumentaltouch, carried out using any auxiliary tool (tool) and achieves great accuracy, even when the palpable object is hidden from view
Kinesthetic sensations - sensations of movement and position of one’s own body and its parts, as well as the applied muscle efforts. Using the example of these sensations, we can confirm the fact that not all sensations are formed consciously. They provide coordination of movements, contribute to the assessment of direction, speed and distance to the subject. They are formed automatically, outside the control of consciousness, enter the brain
and regulate movements on a subconscious level
Thanks to kinesthetic sensations, a person with closed eyes can determine the position and movement of parts of his body. The impulses received in the central nervous system from proprioceptors, due to changes that occur during movement in the muscles, cause reflex reactions and play a significant
role in muscle tone and coordination of movements. In conjunction with vision, touch and other sensations, kinesthetic sensations play a significant role in the development of spatial perceptions and ideas in us.
In addition to muscles, receptors for kinesthetic sensations are also found in other sensory organs. For example, the formation of sensations that contribute to maintaining and maintaining balance occurs due to special equilibrium receptors that are located in the inner ear. This is in this case the so-called vestibular system of man
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All sensations are classified in accordance with the classification of receptors proposed by the famous English physiologist Sherrington. He proposed to divide all receptors into three groups: distant and contact exteroreceptorslocated on the surface of the body and reacting to influences from the external environment; interoreceptorsresponsive to changes in internal organs; and proprioreceptorsembedded in the muscles and ligaments.
locomotion when moving the body in space.
We remember that in the psyche only those properties of the world that are found in the process are reflected interactionsorganism with it. What properties of reality are reflected in sensations as mental images of these properties?
In materialistically oriented philosophy, it is currently believed that the forms of being of matter are space and time, its inherent attribute is movement with energy as its main characteristic, while the universal property of matter is reflection. These four concepts form the basic, fundamental characteristics of the reality in which the living organism exists and to which it adapts. It is these characteristics of reality - space, time, energy and information (V. A. Gansen) that are primarily reflected in the primary mental image - sensation.
The subjective “idea” of space arises already at the level of sensations. In the space of each analyzer, a so-called sensory field is formed, which has its own spatial characteristics. If we wear frosted glasses
An object caught in the sensory field of hearing will also have its localization.The touch forms its sensory field, in which the location of the object that arose in it can also be immediately determined.
Here we should pay attention to one very important point: the space of the subjective image (sensation), in which the space of reality is reflected, is fundamentally different from the physical space of the analyzer itself. The essence of this important difference is that the coordinates of the event occurring in the sensor field do not always coincide with those in the physical space of the analyzer. In other words, the location of an object that has entered the sensor field is determined in accordance with its true position, regardless of the location of the receptors that respond to it in the analyzer space. This phenomenon is confirmed by a simple Helmholtz experiment. To obtain the desired result, you need to close one eye and direct the gaze of the other to the angle of the nose bridge and fix it there. Then, close this eye and, without changing its position, focus on the events that will occur in it. After that, through the eyelid, slightly press on the eyeball in the lower outer corner of the eye socket. As a result, a bright spot will appear in the place corresponding to the fixation point of the gaze. The sensation of light arises as a result of mechanical action on the retina of the eye in that place, which under normal conditions is the projection of a light beam emanating from the nose bridge in this position of the eye.
The essence of the experiment is to clearly demonstrate the differences between the space of the sensor field and the physical space of the visual analyzer. By irritating the retina, for example, at the bottom right, we get light at the top left, which corresponds to the usual position of the corresponding light source. This experiment also shows a general difference between mental wayand physiological processes ensuring its formation. From here it also becomes clear that the analyzer is buildingimage whose parameters should correspond to the properties of the environment, and not to the properties of the analyzer itself.
The second important characteristic of reality is time. The subject receives the idea of \u200b\u200btime already in sensations, experiencing durationand sequenceenvironmental influences. The sensation lasts according to the duration of the objective process.
the fact that the term “presentation” in this part of the text is used in the meaning of knowledge that is directly given to the subject, presented (represented) to him and differs in its meaning from the term “presentation” used in psychology, which denotes images of memory.
The concept of energy, as one of the fundamental characteristics of matter, is formed through experience intensitiesexposure. The light may be dim or bright, the sound is quiet or loud, the touch is strong or weak, etc. FROM experiencing intensityeffects associated with such characteristics of sensation as sensitivityand thresholds of sensitivity.By sensitivity is understood the ability to give a sensation in general. Sensitivity thresholds are understood to mean such intensities of impacts expressed in physical quantities, the intersection of which leads either to the appearance or disappearance of adequate sensations. Under absolute bottomthe threshold of sensitivity is understood as the minimum effect on the receptors at which sensation arises. Between the lower threshold of sensitivity and sensitivity there is an inversely proportional relationship: the higher the threshold, the lower the sensitivity and vice versa. At the intersection upper absolutethe sensation threshold ceases to be adequate and a feeling of pain arises: a painfully bright light, a painfully loud sound and other painful sensations. Excessive effects on the senses can cause not only pain, but also shock with loss of consciousness or temporary disorientation. This fact is based on the action of, for example, a sound shocker. When the intensity of irritation changes, the intensity of the sensation does not immediately change. The minimum value by which you need to change the impact so that a person feels these changes (brightness, volume, touch force, more salty or less salty, etc.) is called difference thresholdsensitivity.
The absolute thresholds of sensitivity in humans are extremely low and, therefore, the sensitivity of the senses is very high. For example, the sensitivity of vision is such that in absolute darkness a person can see the flame of a candle at a distance of about 27 km. Auditory
the sensitivity of the basic senses would only impair adaptation to the physical world. If the eye were more sensitive, we would already perceive the wave nature of light and it would seem to us intermittent. We could also see chemical transformations in the eye itself, which would also only interfere with an adequate perception of the world. If the ear were only a little more sensitive, we could hear the blows of molecules resulting from the Brownian motion on the eardrum, which is not necessary, because the body is much more “interested” in the vibrations of the air created by macrobodies. Thus, sensitivity thresholds are determined by “considerations” of the adaptation of our body to the vital conditions of the surrounding reality.
Sensitivity is not a constant feature. She is always dependent on various factors. Such an adaptive change in intensity sensitivity
complete. It is most pronounced in tactile, olfactory and taste analyzers. Full adaptation leads to the fact that after a certain time a person ceases to feel, for example, pressure on the shoulder of a belt from a bag hanging on it or "gets used" to unpleasant odors in the room. This means that the thresholds of sensations in the process of sensory adaptation increase so that this constantly acting stimulus ceases to cause sensation.
2. The dulling of sensations under the influence of strong irritations is expressed in such "getting used" to bright light, strong noise, high temperature that they cease to be felt as strong. This decrease in sensitivity is called negative adaptation.
3. An increase in sensitivity, or positive sensory adaptation, is manifested, for example, in an exacerbation of vision after a prolonged stay in the dark or in an exacerbation of hearing in silence. The sensitivity change is influenced not only by the strength of the stimulus, but also by other factors, for example, the intensity of the need. In a hungry state, sensitivity to food odors is exacerbated, which is well known to everyone from their own experience.
How is the fourth fundamental characteristic of the material world presented in sensation - the ability of matter to reflect or the ability to transmit information? As we tried to show above, the mental image itself is one of the links in the information process that has its own characteristics. These characteristics are presented in the qualitative features of the images associated with the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the world. In the qualitative originality of sensations, the subject is given in encoded form the individual properties of objects and phenomena: in color and its saturation, the surface properties of the bodies from which the light is reflected, or the medium through which it passes; the height and volume of the sound may reflect the size of the object, the energy of its movement and remoteness; in tactile-kinesthetic sensations - physical properties of the surface of bodies and their relief; in taste, chemical properties and concentration of substances dissolved in water, etc.
Thus, in sensations, the subject presents the most general properties of the world as a whole, which at the same time can be a characteristic of the individual properties of individual objects and phenomena of this world.
Sensation is not an isolated mental process. Being the basis, the primary material for constructing more complex mental images, a person’s sensations are influenced by his whole socially conditioned psyche. In particular, thresholds of sensations may depend on a personal attitude, up to a loss of sensitivity. Sensation, such as the color or heaviness of an object, can also change under the influence of perceptual mechanisms. Feelings are especially closely connected with emotions - in any sensation there is always a certain emotional tint to some extent (a pleasant or unpleasant sensation).
The contribution of sensations to the creation of a complex image of reality can be approximately understood by describing the experiences of a hypothetical person sitting alone in the auditorium of the theater. Imagine that he sees only the space of the scene, the inner surface of which is covered with some kind of fog so that no angles are visible. The action has not yet begun, so the scene is empty, there are no people, objects, or scenery on it. By some whim, the scene is either brightly lit or gradually plunged into darkness, at times the stage space shimmers with all the colors of the rainbow, not only the color, but its saturation changes. A person distinguishes some obscure sounds, which either fill the whole scene, or roll along it in all directions, or are heard from the left or right, from above or from somewhere below. He feels some vague smells, they become either strong or subtle. A cool stream of air blows over his face. In his mouth he feels the sweetness from the melted candy, from which one taste remains. He feels his tongue turning in his mouth. He is thirsty. Somewhere inside, aching pain appears. Sitting uncomfortable, legs numb and something scratches his neck. Despite the fact that his gaze is motionless, he notices that suddenly in the gloomy space of the scene, something of an undefined shape appears like a shadow. Having appeared, it begins to move: it either swiftly soars up somewhere, then it gradually descends down and to the side. A person does not follow his gaze, he only notes his movement as if with an internal gaze, while he notices that this something shines brighter, then fainter, then changes color. The “something” sound emitted by this does not bind to it, but is felt separately. Our hypothetical person, having only sensations at his disposal, does not know anything more than what is described. He does not know that there are separate objects in the world, that they have a shape and volume, and there can be a distance between them, that these objects can be different or very similar, that they can remain unchanged or change over time. Our hypothetical person can learn about all this only by using his perception.
Sensation–this is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal conditions of the body with the direct action of stimuli on the corresponding receptors.
Analyzers (sense organs) are those channels through which we receive all the information about the world, both external and actually internal. Reflecting objectively existing objects and phenomena, sensations, approximately accurately reflect the world that exists independently of our consciousness, independent of us. Thus, in its origin and content, sensations are objective. But the sensations themselves are subjective.
Fig. 2.1. Analyzer structure
Analyzers collectively call sensory system(Fig. 2.1). Sensations depend not only on the characteristics of the brain and human analyzers, but also on experience, professional knowledge, interests and other personality traits, as well as on a person’s state (fatigue, mood, etc.). So, with some diseases, sensations become illusory. Sensations are the simplest of all psychic phenomena. The ability to feel is present in all living beings with a nervous system.
The ability to perceive the world in the form of images is endowed only with man and higher animals.
Sensations in their quality and diversity reflect the diversity of environmental properties that are significant to humans.
The vital role of sensations is to promptly and quickly bring to the central nervous system as the main organ of activity control information about the state of the external and internal environment, the presence of biologically significant factors in it.
Classification of sensations
Each analyzer corresponds to certain types of sensations.
Sensations are distinguished depending on the location of the receptor. exteroceptive (obtained from receptors located on the surface of the body and reflecting the properties of objects and environmental phenomena), interoceptive (from receptors located in internal organs and body tissues and reflecting the state of internal organs) and proprioceptive(from receptors located in the muscles and ligaments; they give information about the movement and position of our body.). A subclass of proprioception, which is a sensitivity to movement, is also called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors - kinesthetic or kinesthetic(fig. 2.2) .
Fig. 2.2. Classification of sensations
Exteroceptors can be divided into two groups: contact and distant receptors. Contact receptors transmit irritation in direct contact with objects acting on them; such are the tactile, taste buds. Distant receptors respond to stimuli emanating from a distant object; remote receptors are visual, auditory, olfactory (see Fig. 2.2).
In many activities, visual sensations are most important. An important role in labor activities is played by motor, or kinesthetic sensations, caused by irritation of nerve endings embedded in muscles, joints, ligaments and bones. They provide the flow of information necessary for coordination of movements. The concept of “skin sensations” includes sensations of touch and pressure - touch, or tactile sensations, thermal (cold and thermal) and pain. Fixed skin captures only a few sensations. You need to move the subject over the skin and the movement of the fingers - feeling to reflect the shape of the subject through haptic perceptions. Feelings of balance are involved in the perception of the spatial position of the body. The role of auditory sensations is associated in labor activity, on the one hand, with ensuring the exchange of information between collaborators and, on the other, with the ability to control the operational state of the machine by sound characteristics. Without olfactory sensations, you cannot work in the food industry. It is also important taste sensations, closely associated with olfactory.
The sensations arising from stimuli of interoceptors allow eliminating certain deficiencies in the functioning of various internal organs and thereby create well-being. In conditions of "normal health", individual interoceptive sensations are not recognized. The sensitivity of the analyzers is formed and improved in the course of human labor. All student analyzers can increase their sensitivity, but this requires the following conditions:
1) the systematic exercise of analyzers, which are required in production work high sensitivity;
2) a consistent increase in the sensitivity requirements of exercise analyzers;
3) the creation of the best conditions for the sensation of weak irritants (illumination, coloring, contrast, etc.) encountered in production work;
But the main condition for the formation of sensations among students is to ensure their vivacity, interest and activity in the work, increasing the sensitivity of all analyzers involved in the activity.
Sensation Properties
Quality- This is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type. So, auditory sensations differ in height, timbre, volume; visual - by saturation, color tone, etc. The qualitative variety of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of motion of matter.
Intensity sensations is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the active stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
Duration sensation is its temporal characteristic. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. When the stimulus acts on the sensory organ, the sensation does not immediately appear, but after some time, which was called latent (hidden) period of sensation.The latent period for different types of sensations varies: for tactile sensations, for example, it is 130 milliseconds, for pain - 370 milliseconds. The taste sensation arises after 50 milliseconds after applying a chemical irritant to the surface of the tongue.
Just as a sensation does not occur simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear simultaneously with the termination of the latter. This inertia of sensations is manifested in the so-called aftereffect.
The visual sensation has some inertia and does not disappear immediately after the stimulus causing it ceases to act. The trace from the stimulus remains in the form consistent image. Distinguish positive and negative sequential images. A positive consistent image in lightness and color corresponds to the initial irritation. The principle of cinema is based on the inertia of vision, on maintaining a visual impression for some time in the form of a positive sequential image. The sequential image changes in time, while the positive image is replaced by the negative. With colored light sources, a sequential image transitions to an additional color.
I. Goethe wrote in his Essay on the Doctrine of Color: “When I once went into the hotel one afternoon and a tall girl with dazzling white face, black hair and a bright red corsage came into my room, I looked intently at her, who stood half dusk at some distance from me. After she left there, I saw a black face on the opposite wall of light from me, surrounded by a bright radiance, but the clothes of a very clear figure seemed to me a beautiful green color of a sea wave ” .
The appearance of successive images can be scientifically explained. As is known, the presence of color-sensing elements of three types is assumed in the retina. In the process of irritation, they become tired and become less sensitive. When we look at the red color, the corresponding receivers get tired more than others, therefore, when white light then falls on the same area of \u200b\u200bthe retina, the other two types of receivers remain more susceptible, and we see a blue-green color.
Auditory sensations, similar to visual ones, can also be accompanied by sequential images. The most comparable phenomenon is tinnitus, i.e. unpleasant sensation, which is often accompanied by the impact of deafening sounds. After acting on the auditory analyzer for several seconds, a series of short sound pulses, they begin to be perceived continuously or muffled. This phenomenon is observed after the termination of the sound pulse and continues for several seconds, depending on the intensity and duration of the pulse.
A similar phenomenon occurs in other analyzers. For example, temperature, pain and taste sensations also continue for some time after the action of the stimulus.
Finally, for the sensations is characteristic spatial localization of the stimulus . Spatial analysis carried out by distant receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations (tactile, painful, tasteful) correlate with that part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. Moreover, the localization of pain is more diffuse and less accurate than tactile.
Which are manifested in the reflection of a separate property of objects. This may include a variety of phenomena of the world and the internal state of the human body during the direct impact of material stimuli on receptors. Types of sensations will help determine the most common human irritants.
The role of sensations in life
The role of sensations in human life is difficult to overestimate, because they represent a unique source of all knowledge about the world. People sense the surrounding reality with the help of the senses, because they are the only channels through which the external world penetrates into human consciousness.
Various types of sensations are capable, to one degree or another, of reflecting certain environmental properties. This may include sounds, lighting, taste and many other factors due to which a person has the opportunity to navigate in the world.
The physiological basis of sensations is the nervous processes that by their nature appear during the action of the stimulus on an adequate analyzer. It, in turn, consists of receptors, nerves, and the central section. Here, a variety of signals are processed, which come directly from the receptors to the cerebral cortex. It is safe to say that due to the arrival of impulses and stimuli to the brain, a person can quickly react and perceive various types of sensations.
How do you feel?
A person's sensations arise only when a certain irritant appears. It is worth noting that a certain effect on the receptor can lead to the appearance of an irritant. It converts all processes into nervous excitation, which is transmitted to the central parts of the analyzer.
At this moment, a person can feel the taste, light, as well as many other factors. In this case, a response of the body to a particular stimulus should occur. It is transmitted from the brain to the senses using the centrifugal nerve. A person can move his own gaze and perform many other actions every second, perceiving irritating signals.
The main classification of sensations
The main role of sensations in human life is the timely bringing to the central nervous system all the necessary information. We can distinguish the most common classification, which presents the types of sensations.
Varieties of sensations:
Exteroceptive: a) contact - temperature, tactile and taste; b) distant - visual, auditory and olfactory.
Proprioceptive: a) musculoskeletal.
Interoceptive - they indicate the current state of all internal organs.
Certain sensations are able to reflect the properties of objects, phenomena of the external world, reflecting the state of the body, tactile, pain, as well as sensations of diverse origin. It is thanks to these possibilities that a person can distinguish between colors and light.
Taste
We can say with confidence that the taste sensations are determined by the various properties of the surrounding things. They do not have a complete or objective classification. If we take into account the main complex of sensations that arise due to taste substances, we can distinguish several main irritants - these are acidic, salty, sweet and bitter products.
Taste sensations often include olfactory, and in some cases, this can include a reaction to pressure, heat, cold, or pain. If we talk about caustic, astringent, astringent taste, they are due to a whole range of different sensations. Due to the complex complex, a person is able to feel the taste of food consumed.
Taste receptors are able to manifest themselves during exposure to different taste areas. It turns out that a single substance has a relatively low molecular weight.
The value of sensation properties
The main properties of sensations should be reduced to adaptation or adaptation of various stimuli. All this happens until the moment when the human reaction is equal to the minimum indicators. This includes sensitization, contrast, as well as interaction with various stimuli.
Varieties and properties of sensations can manifest themselves to varying degrees, that is, they depend on the individual physical and biological characteristics of a particular subject. But it is worth noting that all of these properties are significant in the field of psychological point of view. It is worth noting that sensitization and adaptation today are widely used in psychotherapy in order to develop the ability of each person to more clearly and emotionally perceive various positive elements.
Exteroceptive and tactile sensations
All human sensations can be divided into exteroceptive and tactile. It should be noted that exteroceptive sensations give the human body all the necessary information that comes exclusively from the environment. In turn, people get a visual image by using a sufficient number of cells, which are called "koloboks" and "sticks".
The "sticks" help provide reasonably good vision at dusk, and the "balls" are responsible for color vision. The ear can respond to atmospheric pressure fluctuations that are perceived as sound.
The taste bulbs, which are located on the papillae of the tongue, are able to perceive several main tastes - sour, salty, sweet and bitter. Tactile sensations of a person appear during the interaction of any mechanical stimulus and receptors. They are located on the skin of fingers, palms, lips and many other organs.
Proprioceptive sensations provide important information about the current state of the muscles. They are able to respond quickly to the degree of contractions and muscle relaxation. It is worth noting that proprioceptive sensations inform a person about the condition of internal organs, its chemical composition, the presence of biological, useful or harmful substances.
Features of pain
Pain is an important biologically active protective device. It arises through exposure to the destructive power of irritation. It is worth noting that pain can serve as a signal of a possible danger to the human body. The sensitivity of pain is distributed over the surface of the skin, as well as in the internal organs. The distribution process is partial and uneven.
There are areas where a small number of pain receptors are located. Experimental studies were conducted that made it possible to consider the distribution of pain points as dynamic and mobile. Pain sensations are the result of influences that exceed the set limit of the intensity and frequency of the pulses. Also, it all depends on the duration of a certain stimulus.
According to Frey's theory, various pain sensitivity has an independent, peripheral and central nervous apparatus.
Touch and Pressure
Presented are characterized by touch and pressure features. Therefore, it is possible to accurately determine their location, which is produced as a result of experience during the participation of vision and muscle joints. It is worth noting that a large number of receptors are characterized by rapid adaptation. That is why a person feels not only force pressure, but also a change in intensity.
Common sensation characteristics
It is worth noting that intensity is the main characteristic of a person’s sensations, which is determined by the amount and strength of the active stimulus. Certain sensory organs have a particular sensitivity to displayed phenomena. Sensitivity can be described as a threshold for sensation.
The duration of the sensation is a temporary characteristic that can be determined by the periodic effects of the stimulus on the duration and intensity. But it is worth noting that in this case, many other features must be taken into account. During the action of the stimulus on any sense organ, a certain sensation may occur not immediately, but after some time. This phenomenon can be described as latent or latent sensation time.
Olfactory sensations
A sense of smell is a type of chemical sensitivity. It is worth noting that in animals the sense of smell and taste are a single whole, they simply differentiate after a certain period of time. A few years ago it was believed that the sense of smell does not play a particularly important role in human life. If you look from the point of view of cognition of the external world, then vision, hearing and touch are in the first place and are more important.
But it is worth noting that the smell has a direct effect on the various functions of the autonomic nervous system. Also, using this feeling, you can create a positive or negative emotional background that can color the general well-being of a person.
Touch
During touch, each person cognizes the material world, performs a process of movement, which can also turn into conscious, focused feeling. In this way, in practice, a person has the opportunity to cognize any objects.
Sensations of touch and pressure are typical traditional psychophysiological phenomena. They are associated with thresholds of skin sensitivity, therefore, play only a subordinate role in the human mind, as well as its objective reality. Sensory organs - skin, eyes, ears - allow a person to fully understand the world.