| Introduction ................................................. .............................................. | ||
| The architectural part ................................................ ........................ | ||
| 1.1 | General information ................................................ ................................... | |
| 1.2 | Natural and climatic conditions .............................................. ...... | |
| 1.3 | Master Plan Decision ............................................... ............. | |
| 1.4 | Space-planning solution .............................................. ...... | |
| Architectural structures ................................................ ......... | ||
| 2.1 | Structural scheme ................................................ ........................ | |
| 2.2 | Construction Materials................................................ ................... | |
| Architectural Physics ................................................ .................... | ||
| 3.1 | Lighting part ................................................ ...................... | |
| 3.2 | Acoustic calculation ................................................ ........................... | |
| Construction Economics ................................................ ............... | ||
| 4.1 | Consolidated estimates of construction ........................................ | |
| Safety and security there .............................................. ................ | ||
| 5.1 | Occupational Safety and Health................................................ ......................................... | |
| 5.2 | Fire safety................................................ ....................... | |
| Conclusion ................................................. ........................................ | ||
| List of references .......................................... |
Introduction
Architecture or architecture is the art of designing and constructing various buildings, structures, complexes, necessary for life and various types of human activities. They must also embody the tastes and main artistic trends of the society, that is, perform aesthetic functions.
The development of architectural traditions took place over several millennia - the first of the buildings discovered by archaeologists date back to the III millennium BC. e. At first they were as simple as possible, intended for housing. Over the centuries, buildings have become more and more complex. The builders began to use their knowledge to build tombs - barrows, mastabs, and finally giant tombs appeared, which have no analogues in the whole world - the pyramids.
New cultural centers were formed in northern Africa, in Mesopotamia, in the coast and islands of the Mediterranean Sea, in America. In different parts of the world, architecture developed according to its own rules, but in some ways similarities can be found. For example, ziggurats of the peoples of the East were somewhat reminiscent of the pyramids of Ancient Egypt, as well as religious buildings of the Toltecs, Aztecs, Mayans and other peoples who inhabited the American continent.
With the development of civilization, a new stage in the development of architectural traditions began - the construction of cities, later singled out as a separate area of \u200b\u200bart. People living in cities sought to make their life as easy and convenient as possible. They tried to make houses not only comfortable, but also beautiful. From the dwelling, it was possible to determine the social status of a particular city dweller: the poor continued to live in miserable houses, and representatives of the city nobility built entire palaces, which often occupied an area equal to the whole city.
It is this ancient period in the development of architecture that is most interesting. However, studying the history of architectural traditions is associated with certain difficulties. Many of the grandiose ancient buildings and complexes that amaze contemporaries today are partially or completely destroyed, so it’s quite difficult to imagine what they looked like. As for buildings and ensembles built in a later period, there are so many of them that it is almost impossible to study them all. Therefore, this book considers only the most significant, grandiose buildings, impressive in size, layout, facade decoration and interior decoration, not only of contemporaries, but also of descendants.
Architectural part
General information
Blocked low-rise buildings consist of several isolated apartment blocks adjacent to each other with a separate exit from each apartment to the apartment block. The number of blocks that make up the house depends on various conditions (the nature of the site, the terrain, the degree of fire resistance of the house, etc.) and can include from 4 to 16 apartments with linear blocking, and with complex blocking, much more.
Blocked houses, as a rule., Are built one- and two-story. In two-story houses, apartments are located on two levels (cottage type) or on one level on each floor (floor placement). There may be options with a shift of half the floor.
To increase the density of buildings, you can use three-story blocked houses. In our country, such houses have recently begun to gain some distribution, since under certain conditions they combine economic, social and aesthetic effects.
A locked house, while retaining all the comforts of single and semi-detached houses, is much more economical than them. It. due to the reduction in the perimeter of the outer walls and a sharp increase in building density. The efficiency of a blocked house increases with the number of apartments in the house.
Blocking apartments can be carried out in various ways (Fig. 1). The simplest and most common way is the adjoining of apartment blocks with side walls and the formation of a house of a simple rectangular shape. In such a house, all apartments have two-sided orientation and through ventilation.
The same simple configuration of the house and even greater building density gives a two-row lock. However, this technique, with a large number of apartment blocks in the house, worsens the sanitary and hygienic qualities of apartments that receive one-sided orientation and are deprived of through ventilation. Therefore, double-row locking is used, as a rule, in four-apartment buildings, in which apartments receive two-sided orientation and angular ventilation. This lock is called cruciform. In some cases, in order to better isolate individual blocks or improve orientation conditions, blocking is used with the blocks shifted relative to each other.
Figure 1 Examples of blocking apartments in apartment buildings:
1 - house plan; 2 - land plot
In areas with a hot climate, to protect the premises from overheating, a block of L-shaped blocks is used in terms of blocks that form semi-open or closed courtyards. Possible blocking of such apartments and close. In the case of a steep terrain, blocking is performed with a shift of the blocks vertically. In some cases, the vertical shift is combined with the shift of the blocks and horizontally, which creates a rich spatial composition, organically connected with the topography. A different combination of these techniques can create complex interesting composition buildings.
A feature of the layout of apartments of blocked houses is the obligatory presence of 2 entrances. This is explained by the fact that the site is cut into 2 isolated parts by the house - one located in front of the house and the second behind it, which can only be accessed through the apartment. In addition, unlike the individual, the apartments of a blocked house have a limited light front (depending on the nature of the lock), which determines the location of the premises. When apartments are blocked, sanitary units should be located adjacent, for which the blocks in most cases are placed mirror-turned to each other.
One-storey blocked houses are being built with small one-, two- and three-room apartments. Their layout is built according to two main schemes: the front and the kitchen are located on the street side, and the common room and bedroom are facing the opposite side of the house and the plot is accessed from these rooms through a balcony door or terrace; the front and common rooms are facing the street, and the kitchen is facing the plot.
The first reception creates better conditions for a greater connection of the apartment with nature, however, if the site behind the house is used only as an economic yard, the second layout option is preferable.
In fig. Figure 3 shows the layout of apartments in one-story blocks.
It is advisable to build two-story blocked cottage type houses with apartments from three to five rooms with a living area of \u200b\u200bat least 40 m2. Such houses are much more economical than single-story ones, since with a similar area they have a smaller length along the front of the street, which reduces the length of roads and utilities.
Figure 2 Example of complex blocking of buildings on a steep terrain
Figure 3 Layout schemes of apartments of one-story blocked houses
Zoning of rooms in apartments of two-story blocked houses is carried out vertically, and the first floor is planned by analogy with one-story houses. As in individual houses, the location of the apartment staircase plays an important role in the organization of an apartment.
In fig. 4 shows examples of layouts of apartments of two-story blocks.
In the construction practice of our country, two-story blocked cottage-type houses have become widespread due to their relative cost-effectiveness and wide compositional capabilities - by using various combinations of typical blocks, you can get many options for spatial and spatial solutions.
Much less often, two-story blocked houses with a floor-by-floor arrangement of apartments are used. Such houses are rational for placing small apartments with a maximum building density. In this case, each block is not one apartment, as in cottage-type houses, but two located one above the other. Moreover, each apartment has an isolated entrance from its site. On the second floor there is a staircase, closed in cold and average climatic areas and open in the southern areas.
Figure 4 Examples of apartment layouts in blocked cottage type houses: a-three-room apartment; b, four-room
The disadvantage of this blocking is the difficulty of breaking apart-land plots and the inevitability of poor isolation of each other. Therefore, houses with a floor-by-floor arrangement of apartments are designed with only four-apartment ones (two apartments on the first floor and two on the second). This simplifies the breakdown of plots and access to the entrances to each apartment.
Figure 5 Blocked residential building, composed of block apartments: a-facade; b-plans of block apartments (competitive project)
Three- and four-story houses are intended mainly for urban construction of high density, providing for complex blocking of apartments and the creation of a building of great depth (the wider the building, the more rational is the use of the territory). At the same time, it is possible to use multi-storey houses on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th floors with the installation of apartment courtyards, terraces on the roofs of the underlying volumes.
Such space-planning structures of residential buildings, reducing the territory of residential development and contributing to an increase in the density of housing stock, create favorable conditions for creating an expressive architecture of residential development, individualization of the appearance of residential buildings and residential areas, human connection with nature.
Plots of all types of blocked houses are made small, since their width is limited by the width of the block apartment. For rural areas, the norms allow the area of \u200b\u200bthe plot within 600 m2, and in other settlements up to 300 m2. The plots have a narrow, elongated shape in depth and are separated from each other most often by hedges - by rows of shrubs or trees.
The house is located on a plot indented from the red line. Flower gardens are arranged in front of the facade, and behind the house, depending on the family’s way of life, there is a garden, vegetable garden, utility yard, while sheds and a garbage bin are assigned to the back of the site as an economic driveway. Household buildings are not located on very small plots, and where they are needed, they provide a common yard for the whole house, and sometimes a group of houses.
Figure 6 Four-apartment house with a floor layout of apartments:
a - ground floor plan; b - plan of the second floor; in - ground floor apartment; g - site plan; d - apartment of the second floor
The southern regions are characterized by blocking with internal closed or semi-closed courtyards, which are, as it were, a continuation of the apartment and represent a "green room" (Fig. 5.24). Using this method of blocking, they create a very economical dense so-called "carpet" building.
Of great importance is the orientation of the house in the countries of the world, on which the correct insolation of the site and premises depends. It is desirable that the kitchens in all climatic regions be oriented to the north, the rest of the rooms - to the south, east and southeast. As for the site, in cases of simple linear blocking of apartments with the latitudinal location of the house, the part of the site oriented to the south of the house is in a more favorable position, so it should be done more. With the meridional location of the house, most of the site should be left on the west side. The most successful would be the location of such a house at an angle of 30 ... 45 ° to the meridian.
Figure 7 Three-story blocked houses. Level Plans:
a - utility rooms are located on the first level, an apartment is on the second and third; b - cottage type apartments are located on the first and second levels, on the third - on the same level; in - on the ground floor there are apartments in one level, on the second and third - cottage type apartments in two levels
Climatic conditions
The natural conditions of the Almaty region include 5 climatic zones - from deserts to eternal snows. The climate is sharply continental, the average January temperature in the lowlands is -15 C, in the foothills - 6-8 C; July - +16 C and + 24 + 25 C, respectively. The annual rainfall on the plains is up to 300 mm, in the foothills and mountains - from 500-700 to 1000 mm per year.
The city of Almaty is located at the foot of the Tien Shan mountain system in the southeast of the Republic of Kazakhstan at an altitude of 600-900m above sea level.
The climate of Almaty is continental and is characterized by the influence of mountain-valley circulation, which is especially evident in the northern part of the city, located directly in the zone of transition of mountain slopes to the plain.
The average long-term air temperature is 10 ° C, the coldest month (January) −4.7 ° C, the warmest month (July) 23.8 ° C. Frosts begin on average on October 14th and end on April 18th. Steady frosts last an average of 67 days - from December 19 to February 23. Weather with a temperature of more than 30 ° C is observed on average 36 days a year.
In the center of Almaty, like any large city, there is a “heat island” - the contrast of the average daily temperature between the northern and southern outskirts of the city is 3.8% and 0.8 ° C in the coldest and 2.2% and 2 , 6 ° C on the hottest five days. Therefore, frosts in the city center begin on average 7 days later and end 3 days earlier than on the northern outskirts.
Almaty is located at various heights above sea level - from 600 to 1650 meters. Geographical coordinates - 77 ° east longitude and 43 ° north latitude.
At the foot of the mountains there is a flat strip of loose boulder-pebble deposits, covered with loess-like loams. To the north of the city, the sloping terrain is gradually leveled; several rivers cross the plain strip. The natural relief within the city has significantly changed. In the mountains, with a height of 600 m, the semi-desert is replaced by a belt of dry wormwood, feather grass, and fescue steppes on chestnut soils; at heights of 800-1700 m, meadows on chernozem-like mountain soils and deciduous forests of park type; with a height of 1500-1700 m - a belt of subalpine meadows in combination with coniferous forests (Tien Shan spruce, fir, juniper) on mountain meadow soils; above 2800 m - low grass alpine meadows and shrubs on mountain tundra soils.
In Kazakhstan, the Northern Tien Shan belongs to the most seismically dangerous territory, at the foot of which is the city of Almaty. According to seismic microzoning, this zone belongs to the seismicity zone of 7-9 points.
The relief of the site is calm, with a slope to the north. The elevations of the building are taken into account the marks of the adjacent sidewalks, the carriageway and suggest drainage from the building and the site.
Engineering and geological conditions
The construction site is characterized by a thick stratum of pebble soils with sandy (rarely-sandy or loamy) aggregate, covered by a thin (1.0 - 4.8 m) layer of cover formations, represented by loose soils and often overlapping and quickly wedging out with loams, sandy loams, sand of various sizes. Groundwater occurs at depths of 15–20 to 120 m.
The proposed construction site is seismically unfavorable in accordance with paragraph 3.5. SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 "Construction in seismic areas" in the zone of possible manifestation of tectonic faults on the surface of the soil.
Considering the depth of the foundations and the presence of a thick pebble thickness in the lower part of the section, the engineering and seismic conditions within the construction site will correspond to the conditions of the II-A-1 seismic section with a seismicity of 9 points and I category of soils according to seismic properties. The adjusted value of the site seismicity in the Almaty area is 9 points for the first category of soils for seismic properties (taking into account the depth of the foundations).
Groundwater at the exploration site with openings of 21.0 m depth has not been uncovered.
The foundation of the foundations adopted engineering-geological element 6 - pebble soil with sand filling, according to SNiP RK 5.01-01-2002,
According to compression tests, clay soils exhibit subsidence properties from additional loads. The coefficient of relative subsidence at a specific pressure of 0.05 MPa is 0.003; at a specific pressure of 0.1 MPa - 0.011; at a specific pressure of 0.2 MPa - 0.022 at a specific pressure of 0.3 MPa - 0.023. Ground conditions relate to the first type of subsidence.
The standard depth of seasonal freezing of soils according to SNiP RK 5.01-01-2002 and SNiP RK 2.04-01-2004 for loam is 92 cm, for coarse soil - 136 cm. The maximum penetration of 0 degrees into the soil is 170 cm.
1.3 Decision of the master plan
The store is located in a sharply continental zone, with sharp changes in temperature, characterized by a maximum temperature in the summer during the day 40-42 and at night 16-18.
Figure 8 Decision of the master plan
The proposed construction site has a rectangular shape in plan. The territory is located in a seismic hazard zone.
The site plan stretches south to north, and borders residential areas on the north. The building meets all sanitary requirements. The size of the plot is 142x142m. Land area –0.24 hectares. Entrance is oriented from west to east.
Soils - planting with solid and semi-solid carbonate inclusions. Groundwater lies at a depth of 50.0 m from the surface of the earth. The depth of soil freezing is 1.2 m.
The climate of Almaty is sharply continental with all the features inherent in a semi-desert zone:
Excess insolation and heat resources amid a sharp lack of moisture in the summer;
Moderately low air temperatures in winter; with large seasonal and daily fluctuations of meteo elements.
The climate is included in 3 in the climate area.
The average duration of a hot period is 90 days. In the summer months, high solar radiation. The average temperature in July is + 30˚C. The average maximum temperature in June - August + 36˚C; absolute maximum temperature \u003d 40˚C.
The average temperature in January is -21˚C, the maximum temperature is -25˚C.
The average annual rainfall is 220m. The average of the largest snow cover h \u003d 15 cm. The standard snow load per 1 m² of horizontal surface is 100 kg / m².
Annual and seasonal wind roses have a pronounced predominance of directions throughout the year northwest. Greater repeatability of westerly and easterly winds. The standard wind load per 1 m² of horizontal surface is 38 kg / m². ,
Table 1 Windrose
Figure 9 Wind rose
Table 2 Environmental Activities
| № | Name of event | Event Performance Factors |
| 1. | Timely and high-quality arrangement of permanent, temporary access area and on-site roads | Reducing the area of \u200b\u200bdestructible surface with vegetation. Prevention of air and water erosion. Dust reduction |
| Concrete and mortar transport centrally in closed body dump trucks | Elimination of soil pollution, reduction of material losses, reduction of costs for loading and unloading | |
| The use of electricity for heating temporary household premises. | Environmental pollution reduction | |
| Inclusion of temporary domestic premises to the permanent designed water supply and sewage networks in the preparatory period | Reducing environmental pollution, reducing the estimated cost of buildings and structures | |
| Shortening the time of excavation | Reducing the processes of air and water erosion. Lower cost of excavation. | |
| Transportation of construction equipment to the site in the daytime | Noise reduction at night and in the evening | |
| Maximum conservation of green spaces at the construction site | Reducing dust in the environment. Lower estimated construction costs | |
| Completion of construction with high-quality cleaning and landscaping of the construction site with restoration of vegetation | Reduction of air and water soil erosion. Improving the quality of development | |
| Construction site temporary fencing device | Environmental dust reduction |
1.3 Volumetric - planning solution
Blocked residential buildings located in the city of Almaty. The project provides for landscaping with the organization of parking lots and a mini garden.
Figure 10 Floor Plan
Figure 11 Floor Plan
Figure 12 Floor Plan
The architectural - planning solution is based on a clear technological relationship of the premises.
In the plan, the building has a circular shape, with dimensions of 50 × 43 m. The floors are connected together, vertically, by stairs.
The height of the building is three floors 10.6m. The height of the first floor is 3,200 mm. ,
Figure 13 Section
Composite building facade solution
The decision of the facades is based on a combination of the main volume. The use and combination of modern finishing materials: small pieces, cladding with colored polished glass, the use of aluminum stained-glass windows give the building the necessary
The building is equipped with drinking water supply, sewage, heating, ventilation, electric lighting and low-current devices (radio, telephone, television).
Figure 14 Compositional solution of the facade of buildings
© 2015-2019 website
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page Created Date: 2016-08-08
geographic climate farming history
One of the last in time, L.V. Milov. In his opinion, in central Russia, which constituted the historical core of the Russian state (after it moved from Kiev to Northeast Russia), despite all the fluctuations in the climate, the agricultural work cycle was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days.
East European Plain: the climate is sharply continental, severe. And the soil is unfavorable - only 3% of chernozem, mainly clay and other infertile soils. Soloviev said that Russian nature became a stepmother for Russian people. What is the unkindness here? Firstly, very poor soil quality. However, the quality of the soil is not the main thing. Most of us have summer cottages, we do not like to go there. Nevertheless, the crop depends not so much on the quality of the soil, but on the quality of the processing.
For high-quality processing, the Russian man did not have time. Because the agricultural year averaged 135 -147 days a year. From the 12th to the 18th centuries, the territory of Europe was the so-called Small Ice Age. The average monthly temperature was minus 37 degrees (in Moscow).
In the feudal era, the agricultural year was 140 days a year. Therefore, it was necessary to rush, which led to a change, to the uniqueness of the structure of the economy. They cultivated only the most necessary. Therefore, the main becomes cereal farming. Those. crops that are resistant to drought, do not require care, were grown.
Gardening was not practiced. They planted only that which itself would grow: turnips, rutabaga, peas.
Cities have always been surrounded by gardens (cottages). The townspeople in the summer were gardeners - they themselves took care of food. This influenced the nature of the craft. In Russia, a gardener in summer, and a craftsman in winter.
For at least four centuries, the Russian peasant was in a situation where thin soils required careful processing, and he simply did not have enough time for it, as well as for the preparation of feed for livestock. Using primitive tools, the peasant could only cultivate his arable land with minimal intensity, and his life most often depended directly on soil fertility and the vagaries of the weather.
In reality, with this budget of working time, the quality of his agriculture was such that he could not always return even seeds to the crop. In practice, this meant for the peasant the inevitability of work without sleep and rest, day and night, using all the reserves of the family. A peasant in western Europe, neither during the Middle Ages nor in the new time, needed such a strain of strength, because the season of work was much longer there. The break in field work in some countries was surprisingly short (December-January). Of course, this provided a much more favorable rhythm of work. And the arable land could be processed much more thoroughly (4-6 times). This is the fundamental difference between Russia and the West, traced over the centuries.
Low productivity, the dependence of labor results on weather conditions led to the extreme stability in Russia of community-based institutions, which are a certain social guarantee of the survival of the bulk of the population. Land redistribution and equalization, various kinds of peasant "help" remained in Russia until 1917. Community leveling traditions were preserved after the First World War, they existed in the 20s until collectivization.
Three months a year he was a peasant, and the rest of the time he was a craftsman. Hence the quality and character of the craft. Trade was of a diversified nature. Shops arose only from the end of the 18th century. Those. before that, merchants walked, changed, carried. Therefore, each craft product was made for the abstract consumer.
In Europe, if you make a bad, low-quality product, you will dishonor your shop, brand.
The climatic factor had an impact on the loss ratio of livestock. Spring begins, there is nothing to sow, the peasant harnesses himself. Agriculture gave a low surplus product. That is, there was a low cost of living.
This gave rise to a feature of the state structure. How does the state live? At the expense of taxes. If there is no surplus product, it means that taxes are difficult to take, so there must be a strong state, therefore a despotic state existed in Russia.
The social structure is changing. There is no surplus product; therefore, society cannot contain the intelligentsia. However, there are needs in healthcare, art, and science. And if there is no intelligentsia, then these functions are performed by religion.
Therefore, in Russia, until the surplus product began to grow, there was no intelligentsia, there was no secular literature, music. Russian culture until the 18th century had a religious character.
The climatic factor also affected the social structure. The countries of the first echelon of primitiveness left by the 11th century, the community was outlived, and individual farming came. In Russia, the communal system survived until the 20th century. Even Stolypin’s reform could not change anything. In other words, there was a community organization in Russia. In these difficult conditions, the efforts of our reformers aimed at creating farms did not lead to anything.
Also, the climatic factor influenced psychology - community psychology is emerging in Russia. So in Russian history there is a blat. This is from the time of Kievan Rus. Everyone struggled with this. There is fuel for this phenomenon - community psychology. Griboedov expressed it well in "Mountain from the Mind."
Another consequence of community psychology is equalization. She has always been. Equalization is a lever to the self-preservation of communities. The community breaks if the neighbor is rich.
Since the Russian people were dependent on nature and weather (it was possible to work on arable land from morning till night, however, early drought or freezing could ruin all work). Therefore, people believed in miracles. Belief in miracles manifested itself in folklore. All Russian characters of fairy tales miraculously received life joys. This hope of a miracle is in general characteristic of the Russian character, hence the unique, untranslated into other languages \u200b\u200bwords: maybe, I suppose.
The climatic factor in many ways determined the peculiarities of the Russian national character. First of all, we are talking about the ability of a Russian person to extreme stress, concentration on a relatively long period of time of all his physical and spiritual potency. At the same time, the eternal lack of time, the centuries-long absence of a correlation between the quality of agricultural work and the yield of bread, did not develop in it a pronounced habit of thoroughness, accuracy in work, etc.
The extensive nature of agriculture, its riskiness played a significant role in developing ease in a Russian person for a change of place, an eternal craving for “Podrajsky zemlitsa”, for whitewater, etc., which Russia, not least, owes its vast territory, and at the same time time increased in him a craving for traditionalism, rooting habits. On the other hand, difficult working conditions, the strength of community traditions, and an internal feeling of the danger of pauperization that threatens society, gave rise to the development of a Russian person's feelings of kindness, collectivism, and willingness to help. We can say that the Russian patriarchal, not in economics, but in their mentality, the peasantry of capitalism did not accept.
The following geopolitical conditions are usually noted that have influenced the specifics of Russian history: a vast, poorly populated territory, a border unprotected by natural barriers, isolation (over most of history) from the seas (and therefore from maritime trade), favoring the territorial unity of the historical core of Russia, the river network, intermediate between Europe and Asia, the position of Russian territories.
The weak population of the lands of the East European Plain and Siberia, which became the object of the application of the forces of the Russian people, had diverse consequences for its history. Vast land reserves provided favorable conditions for the outflow of the agricultural population from the historical center of Russia. This circumstance forced the state to tighten control over the identity of the farmer (so as not to lose sources of income). The more the needs of the state and society for surplus products increased during the course of historical development, the more stringent the control became, leading in the 17th century to the enslavement of a significant mass of the Russian peasantry.
On the other hand, due to the weak population of the country, in the process of colonization, the Russians did not need to win a “place in the sun” in the struggle against the indigenous peoples of Central Russia (Finno-Ugric) and Siberia: there was enough land for everyone. “Slavic tribes are spread over vast spaces along the banks of large rivers; when moving from south to north, they were supposed to meet Finnish tribes, but there were no legends about hostile clashes between them: it can easily be assumed that the tribes did not quarrel very much for land that was so plentiful and that could be so spaciously settled without resentment each other".
The historical existence of the Russian people was extremely complicated by such a factor as the natural openness of the borders of the Russian lands to foreign invasions from the West and East. Russian territories were not protected by natural barriers: they were not protected by either the sea or mountain ranges. Naturally, this circumstance was used by neighboring peoples and states: Catholic Poland, Sweden, Germany (Livonian and Teutonic knighthoods in the Baltic states, Germany in the 1st and 2nd world wars) and even France (under Napoleon I), on the one hand, nomads of the Great Steppe , with another.
The constant threat of military invasions and the openness of border lines required a tremendous effort from the Russian and other peoples of Russia to ensure their security: significant material costs, human resources (and this with a small and rare population). Moreover, security interests demanded a concentration of popular efforts: as a result, the role of the state should have grown tremendously. The location between Europe and Asia made Russia open to influence both from the West and from the East. Until the thirteenth century, development proceeded similarly and parallel to the European one. However, the active invasion of the West to seize land and plant Catholicism, which occurred simultaneously with the Mongol-Tatar invasion, forced Russia to turn towards the East, which seemed a lesser evil.
Asian despotism as a form of state structure of the society of the emerging Moscow principality was due to external, military circumstances, as well as internal, natural-geographical and socio-political factors. Therefore, when choosing forms of government, such democratic options as the Novgorod Republic or a representative monarchy with Zemsky Sobors were discarded in favor of the autocracy.
In addition to the unfavorable, there were also geopolitical factors favorable for the historical development of Russia. The first of them is the specificity of the river network of the East European Plain, which the Greek historian Herodotus drew attention to: "Apart from many huge rivers, there is nothing more interesting in this country."
In fact, Soloviev echoes him, the vast expanses of ancient Scythia correspond to gigantic river systems that are almost intertwined, thus making up a water network throughout the country from which it was difficult for the population to free itself for a special life; both everywhere and in our country rivers served as guides for the first population: tribes sat on them, the first cities appeared on them. Since the largest of them flow to the east or southeast, this agreed to the predominant spread of the Russian state region in the indicated direction; rivers contributed a lot to the unity of the people and the state, and for all that, special river systems initially determined the special systems of regions, principalities. Thus, the river network rallied the country both politically and economically.
Another factor favorable for the history of Russia is that a significant part of the “Great Silk Road” from China to Europe passed through its territory. This circumstance created the objective interest of many countries and peoples in maintaining political stability along this great highway of antiquity, i.e. in the existence of the Eurasian Empire: at first, the state of Genghis Khan became such an empire, then Russia.
Climatic conditions
The architectural and planning solution of residential buildings should provide not only comfortable, but also healthy conditions for human life. On the territory of our country there are cities and other settlements with very different natural and climatic conditions. Sanitary requirements suitable in one climate may be completely unacceptable in other climatic regions. So, in the central and especially northern regions, apartments of residential buildings should receive as much sunlight, heat as possible; in the southern regions, on the contrary, they need to be protected from excessive overheating. In some areas, protection from the wind is required, in others intensive ventilation is required. Therefore, when designing buildings in general, and residential buildings, one should carefully consider the climatic features of the area, using the positive aspects of its natural conditions and overcoming negative ones, so as to create the best sanitary and hygienic living conditions.
An excellent example of the connection with natural conditions is the national dwelling, the space-planning solution of which in different parts of the country is very diverse.
In the USSR, climatic zoning was carried out for construction, according to which the entire territory of the country is divided into four construction and climatic zones, each of which is divided into subzones, characterized by certain climatic factors - temperature and humidity, wind speed, etc.:
Climatic region I is the coldest. It covers a significant part of the RSFSR (Urals, most of Siberia and the Far East);
II climate region is moderate. It includes a significant part of the European territory of the RSFSR, the Karelian ASSR, the Estonian SSR, the Latvian SSR, the Lithuanian SSR, the Belorussian SSR and part of the Ukrainian SSR;
Climate III - warm. It includes the southeastern part of the RSFSR, the southeastern part of the Ukrainian SSR, most of the Kyrgyz SSR and the north of the Uzbek SSR;
Climate IV is hot. It covers the territory of the southern coast of Crimea, Transcaucasia and the Central Asian republics.
The sixteen microclimatic subareas that make up these regions are distinguished by particularly cold winters, humidity, sharply continental climate, etc.
In accordance with this zoning, the material and the thickness of the enclosing structures (walls, roofs), the depth of the foundations are prescribed, the structures are calculated according to wind and snow loads, and the volume-planning structure is determined.
The leading climate factors are radiation-temperature conditions. The sanitary and hygienic significance of direct solar exposure of apartments is great and therefore to a large extent determines their quality. The sun's rays not only kill pathogenic bacteria, but also affect the psychophysical state of a person.
The effectiveness of the influence of sunlight is determined by the duration of direct exposure, i.e. duration of insolation. According to the norms (SNiP II-60 - 75 **), the placement and orientation of residential buildings must ensure continuous insolation of the premises: for the central zone (in the range of geographical latitudes 58 ... 48 ° N) - at least 2.5 hours per day for the period from March 22 to September 22; for the northern zone (north of 58 ° N) - at least 3 hours for the period from April 22 to August 22; for the southern zone (south of 48 ° N) - at least 2 hours for the period from February 22 to October 22.
With the space-planning solution of residential buildings, this standardized duration of insolation should be provided: at least in one living room in 1 ... 3-room apartments and at least in two rooms in 4 ... 6-room apartments.
In houses where all rooms of the apartment are insulated, insolation can be reduced by 0.5 hours.
The conditions of insolation are formed depending on the orientation of the windows of the apartments on the horizon, the types of layout of the house, the distances between the buildings. These conditions are interrelated.
In relation to the cardinal points, buildings can occupy three main positions: meridional, in which the building, with its longitudinal axis, is parallel to the north-south direction; latitudinal, at which this axis is parallel to the west-east direction; diagonal, in which the longitudinal axis is directed at an angle to the main directions.
The meridional orientation is most acceptable in the I and II climatic regions, as it provides almost the same and the longest insolation on both sides of the house. Therefore, apartments in such houses can have a one-sided arrangement of rooms along any facade. In the III and IV climatic regions, this orientation is unacceptable, since the low, hottest rays of the afternoon sun will penetrate deep into the rooms oriented to the west and create a strong overheating of the air and the exterior walls of the building.
The latitudinal orientation is most acceptable in the south, since when the sun is high on the south side of the horizon, its rays do not penetrate into the depths of the premises. This orientation is especially convenient for the gallery layout of the house, in which all living rooms face the south side of the horizon, and kitchens and other utility rooms are facing the north.
The diagonal orientation creates good conditions for insolation in the middle latitudes and is quite acceptable for unilateral placement of living rooms in the southern lane.
Since in specific building conditions (the direction of the streets, the terrain, the direction of the winds, etc.) it is not always possible to orient buildings only in a favorable direction, for example, meridional, for the northern and central zones create latitudinal options for the layout of sections in which windows apartments are oriented on both facades, which allows the building to have one of the facades on the unfavorable side of the horizon (Fig. 1).
In addition to the orientation of the premises, other factors also influence the insolation time: the distance between buildings, the shapes and sizes of closely located buildings (one building can obscure another), the architecture of the building itself, ledges in the layout of which, large outflows of balconies or other facade elements will obscure the windows of some apartments .
At the same time, the architectural climate can improve the microclimate of residential premises. So, in the southern regions, in order to protect the premises from excessive heating, it is necessary to use various sunscreens: from sheer rays of the sun - peaks, canopies and other horizontal elements, from eastern and western rays of the sun - shading devices from vertical elements (protruding ribs, shields, etc.) P.). In these areas, the widespread use of loggias, balconies, verandas, which are most of the year living quarters, is appropriate. Even the color of the exterior walls is important for protection against overheating. In the northern regions, where it is necessary to preserve heat in the premises, it is advisable to build houses of a simple compact form, to reduce, if possible, the perimeter of the cooled external walls; here, the device of double vestibules, special designs of bindings is mandatory.
Fig. 1. Schemes of block sections:
a - latitudinal free and partially bounded orientation; b - meridional of limited orientation; 1 ... 4 number of rooms
Of great importance for the sanitary-hygienic regime of apartments is ventilation. In houses designed for climatic regions III and IV, apartments must have through or corner ventilation. (In sectional houses of the climatic region III, it is allowed to ventilate part of one-sided apartments through the stairwell.) Ventilation plays a particularly important role in hot areas with high air humidity.
For the normal sanitary and hygienic regime, the natural illumination of the apartment premises is also important, which is also solved by architectural and planning means.
The mild climate of Asia and the Mediterranean made it possible to quickly move from an appropriating economy to a producing one, which contributed to the transition to a settled lifestyle.
In Asia, thanks to the warm climate and the presence of large rivers that flow annually, irrigation agriculture has developed. In turn, the creation and use of a system of irrigation structures for the flow of water supplied to the fields, the construction of defensive fortifications required the collective efforts of many people. The organization of such work required a strong leader and a large staff of officials. Gradually, a special form of the state developed in the East - despotism, where power and property were inseparable. The ruler, who had absolute power, was the supreme owner of all the land. The rights of the ruler to all lands subject to him were secured by laws, religious traditions and customs. In ancient Eastern states, there was practically no private property. A noble person was inherited a state post with the corresponding rights and privileges assigned to it (including the receipt of products from certain lands).
In the ancient Eastern despots, a centralized administrative apparatus was formed, which controlled the whole life of the country. Laws and traditions determined the place of each social layer (and the person related to it) inside a kind of social pyramid. At the top of this pyramid was a ruler. The degree of proximity to him determined the position, duties, rights and privileges of officials. The bulk of the population did not have access to power.
The climatic conditions of the Mediterranean were also characterized by mild, humid winters and warm, hot, dry summers. But in the Mediterranean there were no large rivers and wide valleys, which prompted residents to engage in crafts and sea trade. This led to the fact that, unlike the countries of the East, here power was not concentrated only in the hands of the landowning nobility. So, there were no conditions for the emergence of despotism. The supreme power in the state belonged to the popular assembly, in which all full citizens could participate. The assembly passed laws, elected rulers, made peace, or declared war. Although the decisive word in most policies belonged to the clan nobility, ordinary citizens could also influence the adoption of crucial government decisions.
Thus, the climatic conditions of Asia contributed to the development of irrigation agriculture and the formation of despotism, while trade and crafts developed in the Mediterranean and democracy arose, which was characterized by a wide participation of citizens in government affairs.
Climate of Russia
The founders of modern climatology A.I. Voeikov, A.A. Kaminsky, P.I. Brounov, B.P. Alisov, S.P. Khromov, M.I. Budyko and many other domestic climatologists.
Climate Formation Factors
The climate of Russia, like any region, is formed under the influence of a number of climate-forming factors and processes. An analysis of them reveals the genesis of climate, helps explain the geographical distribution of its elements, and helps to understand the climatic features of individual regions of the country.
The main climate-forming processes are radiation and circulation. The features of their manifestation, the interaction of these processes depend on the geographical position of the country, the features of the relief and the influence of the properties of the underlying surface. Therefore, both the geographical position and the underlying surface are also related to climate formation factors.
a: 2: (s: 4: "TEXT"; s: 96896: " The influence of geographical location. The latitudinal position of the country determines the amount of solar radiation entering the surface, and its annual distribution. Russia is located between 77 and 41 ° N .; its main area is between 50 and 70 ° N This determines the position of Russia mainly in the temperate and subarctic zones, which predetermines sharp changes in the amount of solar radiation over the seasons of the year. The large extent of the territory from north to south determines significant differences in the annual total radiation between its northern and southern regions. In the Arctic archipelagos of Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya, the annual total radiation is about 60 kcal / cm2 (2500 mJ / m2) and in the far south about 120 kcal / cm2 (5000 mJ / m2).
Of great importance is the position of the country in relation to the oceans, since the distribution of cloudiness, which affects the ratio of direct and diffuse radiation and through it the value of total radiation, as well as the entry of more humid sea air, depends on it. Russia, as you know, is washed by the seas, mainly in the north and east, which, with the western transport of air masses prevailing in these latitudes, limits the influence of the seas within a relatively narrow coastal strip. However, a sharp increase in cloudiness in the Far East in summer reduces solar radiation in July in the Sikhote Alin region to 550 mJ / m2, which is equal to the total radiation in the north of the Kola Peninsula, Yamal and Taimyr.
A decisive influence on the development of circulation processes is exerted by the position of the territory with respect to the pressure centers, or, as they are otherwise called, the centers of action of the atmosphere. The climate of Russia is influenced by the Azores and Arctic maxima, as well as the Icelandic and Aleutian minima. In winter, the Asian maximum is formed within Russia and the neighboring regions of Mongolia. The prevailing winds and, consequently, the air masses depend on the position in relation to these baric centers. The influence of various baric centers on the climate of Russia varies according to the seasons of the year.
The relief has a significant impact on the formation of Russia's climate. The distribution of mountains in the eastern and partly on the southern outskirts of the country, its openness to the north and north-west provide the influence of the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean on most of Russia, limit the influence of the Pacific Ocean and Central Asia. At the same time, the influence of Central Asia can be traced more strongly than the influence of the Black Sea or the Near-Asian highlands. The height of the mountains and their distribution in relation to the prevailing air currents determine a different degree of their influence on the climate of neighboring territories (the Caucasus and the Urals). In the mountains, a special, mountainous climate is formed, changing with altitude. Mountains exacerbate cyclones. Differences in the climate of the leeward and windward slopes, mountain ranges and intermontane basins are observed. On the plains, differences are observed in the climate of hills and lowlands, river valleys and interfluves, although they are much less significant than in the mountains.
Not only the relief, but also other features of the underlying surface affect the climatic features of a particular territory. The presence of snow cover determines the change in the ratio of reflected and absorbed radiation due to the high albedo of snow, especially freshly fallen (up to 80-95%). The tundra, forest, dry steppe and meadow also have different reflectivity; it is lowest in coniferous forests (10-15%). The dark exposed surface of the soil absorbs heat three times more than dry light sandy soils. Differences in the albedo of the underlying surface are one of the reasons for the differences in the radiation balance of the territories receiving the same total radiation. Moisture evaporation from the soil surface, transpiration of plants also change from place to place. In this case, the amount of heat expended on evaporation changes, therefore, the temperature of the surface of the soil and the surface layer of air changes.
As you can see, differences in the nature of the underlying surface are reflected in the climate of the territories.
Radiation conditions. Solar radiation arriving on the Earth’s surface is the main energy base for climate formation. It determines the main influx of heat to the earth's surface. The farther from the equator, the smaller the angle of incidence of sunlight, the lower the intensity of solar radiation. Due to the high cloudiness in the western regions of the Arctic basin, which delays direct solar radiation, the smallest annual total radiation is characteristic of the polar islands of this part of the Arctic and the Varanger fjord area on the Kola Peninsula (about 2500 mJ / m2). To the south, the total radiation increases, reaching a maximum on the Taman Peninsula and in the area of \u200b\u200bLake Khanka in the Far East (over 5000 mJ / m2). Thus, the annual total radiation doubles from the northern to the southern borders.
The total radiation is the incoming part of the radiation balance: R \u003d Q (1 - a) - J. The consumable part is reflected radiation (Q · a) and effective radiation (J). The reflected radiation depends on the albedo of the underlying surface; therefore, it varies from zone to zone and according to the seasons of the year. Effective radiation increases with a decrease in cloudiness, therefore, from the coasts of the seas deeper into the continent. In addition, effective radiation depends on the temperature of the air and the temperature of the active surface. In general, effective radiation increases from north to south.
The radiation balance on the northernmost islands is negative; in the mainland, it varies from 400 mJ / m2 in the extreme north of Taimyr to 2000 mJ / m2 in the extreme south of the Far East, in the lower Volga and Eastern Ciscaucasia. The maximum value (2100 mJ / m2) reaches the radiation balance in the Western Ciscaucasia. The radiation balance determines the amount of heat that is spent on the diverse processes that occur in nature. Consequently, near the northern mainland outskirts of Russia, five times less heat is spent on natural processes, and primarily on climate formation, than its southern outskirts.
Circulation processes. On the territory of Russia, circulation processes are no less important in providing thermal resources than radiation ones.
Due to the various physical properties of land and the ocean, unequal heating and cooling of the air in contact occurs. As a result, there are movements of air masses of various origins - atmospheric circulation. The circulation proceeds under the influence of high and low pressure centers. Their position and severity vary according to the seasons of the year, in connection with which the prevailing winds, bringing certain air masses to the territory of Russia, also change significantly. However, in most of the country, westerly winds prevail year-round, bringing Atlantic air masses, which are associated with major rainfall.
Air masses and their repeatability. The regular repeatability of the air masses, with the characteristics of which the nature of the weather is related, determines the basic features of the climate of the territory. Russia is characterized by three types of air masses: arctic air (AB), air of temperate latitudes (LUS) and tropical air (TV). In most of the country, air masses of temperate latitudes prevail throughout the year, represented by two sharply different subtypes - continental (kVUSh) and sea (mVUSH). Continental air is formed directly over the territory of Russia and the neighboring regions of the mainland. It is characterized by dryness throughout the year, low temperatures in winter and quite high in summer. Sea air of moderate latitudes comes to Russia from the North Atlantic (Atlantic), and to the eastern regions - from the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Compared to continental air, it is humid, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. Moving through the territory of Russia, the sea air transforms quite quickly, acquiring the features of continental.
Arctic air is formed over the icy expanses of the Arctic, so it is cold, has low absolute humidity and high transparency. Under the influence of Arctic air is the entire northern half of Russia; Especially significant is its role in Central and North-Eastern Siberia. In transitional seasons, the arctic air, penetrating into the middle and southern latitudes, causes late spring and early autumn frosts. In summer, droughts and dry winds are associated with the breakthrough of Arctic air into the southern regions of the East European and West Siberian plains, since as it moves south it transforms into air of moderate latitudes: its temperature rises and its humidity drops more and more.
The air that forms over most of the Arctic is close to continental in its low humidity. Only over the Barents Sea, into which the warm waters of the North Atlantic Current penetrate, the Arctic air is not so cold and more humid. Arctic marine air forms here.
The climatic features of the southern regions of Russia are influenced by tropical air. Local continental tropical air is formed over the plains of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, over the Caspian lowland and the eastern regions of Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia as a result of the transformation of temperate latitude air entering here. Tropical air is characterized by high temperatures, low humidity and low transparency.
Sometimes tropical marine air (MTB) penetrates into the southern regions of the Far East from the central regions of the Pacific Ocean, and into the western regions of the Caucasus from the Mediterranean (Mediterranean air). It is characterized by high humidity and relatively high temperatures compared to mVUSh.
Atmospheric fronts. When qualitatively different air masses come in contact, atmospheric fronts arise. Since three types of air masses are spread over the territory of Russia, two atmospheric fronts arise: the Arctic and the polar. Above the northern regions of Russia at the contact of arctic air and air of temperate latitudes, an arctic front forms, migrating within the arctic and subarctic zones. The polar front separates the air masses of temperate latitudes and tropical air and is located mainly south of the borders of Russia.
A series of cyclones and anticyclones continuously pass over the territory of Russia, contributing to changes in the weather, but anticyclone weather prevails in some territories, especially in winter (Middle Siberia, Northeast, Baikal and Transbaikalia), or cyclonic (Kuril Islands, southeast Kamchatka, Kaliningrad Region and etc.).
Currently, artificial satellites are receiving data on meteorological elements of the Earth’s atmosphere and photographs of processes that create weather on the planet. Large cloudless streaks and spots, atmospheric fronts, and various types of clouds are visible in the photographs. Remote meteorological data is used to compile weather maps and weather forecast maps.
Climatic features of the cold period
In winter, total solar radiation reaches its highest values \u200b\u200bin the south of the Far East, in southern Transbaikalia and Ciscaucasia. In January, the extreme south of Primorye receives over 200 mJ / m2, the rest of the listed areas - over 150 mJ / km2. To the north, the total radiation rapidly decreases due to the lower position of the Sun and a reduction in the length of the day. To 60 ° N it is already decreasing 3-4 times. North of the Arctic Circle, a polar night is established, the duration of which is 70 ° N is 53 days. In winter, the radiation balance is negative throughout the country.
Under these conditions, there is a strong cooling of the surface and the formation of the Asian maximum centered over northern Mongolia, southeast Altai, Tuva and the south of Baikal. The pressure at the center of the anticyclone exceeds 1040 hPa (mbar). Two spurs extend from the Asian maximum: to the northeast, where a secondary Oymyakon center is formed with a pressure of more than 1030 hPa, and to the west, to the connection with the Azores maximum, is the Voeikov axis. It stretches through the Kazakh small hills to Uralsk - Saratov - Kharkov - Chisinau and further up to the southern coast of France. In the western regions of Russia, within the Voyeykov axis, the pressure decreases to 1021 hPa, but remains higher than in the territories located north and south of the axis.
The Voeikov axis plays an important role in the climate separation. To the south of it (in Russia it is the south of the East European Plain and Ciscaucasia), east and north-east winds blow, carrying dry and cold continental air of temperate latitudes from the Asian maximum. South-west and westerly winds blow north of the Voyeykov axis. The role of the western transport in the northern part of the East European Plain and in the northwest of Western Siberia is enhanced by the Icelandic minimum, the hollow of which reaches the Kara Sea (in the Varangerfjord region, the pressure is 1007.5 hPa). With western transport, relatively warm and humid Atlantic air often arrives in these areas.
In the rest of Siberia, winds with a southern component prevail, carrying continental air from the Asian maximum.
Over the territory of the Northeast, in the conditions of a hollow relief and minimal solar radiation in winter, continental Arctic air is formed, very cold and dry. From the northeast spur of high pressure, it rushes towards the Arctic and Pacific oceans.
Along the eastern coast of Kamchatka, the Aleutian minimum is formed in winter. On the Commander Islands, in the southeastern part of Kamchatka, in the northern part of the Kuril island arc, the pressure is below 1003 hPa, on a significant part of the coast of Kamchatka the pressure is below 1006 hPa. Here, on the eastern outskirts of Russia, the low-pressure region is located in close proximity to the northeastern spur; therefore, a high pressure gradient is formed (especially near the northern coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk); cold continental air of temperate latitudes (in the south) and Arctic (in the north) is carried to the waters of the seas. The prevailing winds of the north and north-west rhombuses.
The Arctic front in winter is established over the waters of the Barents and Kara Seas, and in the Far East - over the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk. The polar front at this time passes south of the territory of Russia. Only on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus is the influence of the cyclones of the Mediterranean branch of the polar front affected, the paths of which are shifted from Western Asia to the Black Sea due to lower pressure over its open spaces. The distribution of precipitation is associated with the frontal zones.
The distribution of not only moisture, but also heat on the territory of Russia in the cold period is largely associated with circulation processes, as evidenced by the course of the January isotherms.
The isotherm of -4 ° C passes meridionally through the Kaliningrad region. Near the western borders of the compact territory of Russia, the -8 ° C isotherm passes. In the south, it deviates to the Tsimlyansk reservoir and further to Astrakhan. The farther east, the lower the January temperatures. Isotherms -32 ...- 36 ° C form closed loops over Central Siberia and the North-East. In the basins of the North-East and the eastern part of Central Siberia, the average January temperatures drop to -40 ..- 48 ° С. The cold pole of the northern hemisphere is Oymyakon, where the absolute minimum temperature of Russia is fixed, equal to -71 ° С.
The increasing severity of winter to the east is associated with a decrease in the frequency of Atlantic air masses and an increase in their transformation when moving over chilled land. Where warmer air from the Atlantic (western regions of the country) often penetrates, winter is less severe.
In the south of the East European Plain and in the Ciscaucasia, isotherms are located sub-latitudinally, rising from -10 ° С to -2 ...- 3 ° С. The effect of the radiation factor is affected here. It is milder than in the rest of the territory, winter is on the northwestern coast of the Kola Peninsula, where the average January temperature is -8 ° C and slightly higher. This is due to the intake of air warmed over the warm Nordkapp current.
In the Far East, the course of isotherms repeats the outlines of the coastline, forming a pronounced thickening of isotherms along the coastline. The warming effect here affects the narrow coastal strip due to the prevailing air removal from the mainland. An isotherm of -4 ° C stretches along the Kuril ridge. Slightly higher than the temperature on the Commander Islands Along the east coast of Kamchatka isotherm is -8 ° С. And even in the coastal zone of Primorye, January temperatures are -10 ...- 12 ° С. As you can see, in Vladivostok, the average January temperature is lower than in Murmansk, which lies beyond the Arctic Circle, 25 ° to the north.
Most precipitation falls in the southeastern part of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. They are brought by cyclones not only of the Okhotsk, but also mainly of the Mongol and Pacific branches of the polar front, rushing to the Aleutian minimum. Pacific sea air drawn into the front of these cyclones carries the bulk of the rainfall. But in most of the territory of Russia in winter, Atlantic air masses bring rainfall, so the bulk of the precipitation falls in the western regions of the country. To the east and northeast, rainfall decreases. A lot of precipitation falls on the southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. They bring Mediterranean cyclones.
Winter precipitation in Russia falls mainly in solid form and almost everywhere snow cover is established, the height of which and the duration of occurrence vary widely.
The shortest snow cover is typical for the coastal regions of the Western and Eastern Ciscaucasia (less than 40 days). In the south of the European part (up to the latitude of Volgograd) snow lies less than 80 days a year, and in the extreme south of Primorye - less than 100 days. To the north and northeast, the duration of snow cover increases to 240-260 days, reaching a maximum in Taimyr (over 260 days a year). Only on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus does a stable snow cover not form, but during the winter it can be 10-20 days with snow.
Less than 10 cm thick snow in the deserts of the Caspian Sea, in the coastal regions of the Eastern and Western Ciscaucasia. In the rest of the Ciscaucasia, on the East European Plain south of Volgograd, in Transbaikalia and the Kaliningrad Region, the snow cover is only 20 cm high. In most of the territory, it ranges from 40-50 to 70 cm. In the north-eastern (Ural) part of the East European plains and in the Yenisei part of Western and Central Siberia, the height of the snow cover increases to 80-90 cm, and in the most snowy areas of the southeast of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands - up to 2-3 m.
Thus, the presence of a sufficiently thick snow cover and its long-term occurrence is characteristic of most of the country, which is due to its position in temperate and high latitudes. In the northern position of Russia, the severity of the winter period and the height of the snow cover are of great importance for agriculture.
Climatic features of the warm period
With the onset of the warm period, the role of the radiation factor of climate formation sharply increases. It determines the temperature regime in almost the entire territory of the country.
Total radiation reaches its highest values \u200b\u200bin summer in the deserts of the Caspian Sea and on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus - in July, 700 mJ / m2. To the north, the amount of solar radiation decreases little, due to the increase in the length of the day, therefore in the north of Taimyr it is 550 mJ / m2 in July, i.e. 80% of the radiation coming in the south of the country.
In summer, the radiation balance and average monthly temperatures are positive throughout the country. The average July temperature on the northernmost islands of Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya is close to zero, on the Taimyr coast - a little more than + 2 ° С, in the remaining coastal regions of Siberia + 4 ... + 6 ° С, and on the shores of the Barents Sea + 8 ... + 9 ° С. When moving south, the temperature quickly rises to +12 ... + 13 ° C. Further south, the temperature rises more smoothly. The average July temperature reaches a maximum value of + 25 ° C in the deserts of the Caspian region and the Eastern Ciscaucasia.
In summer, the land warms up, the pressure above it decreases. Over Transbaikalia, the south of Yakutia and the middle Amur region, the pressure is set below 1006 hPa, and over the south of Dauria even 1003 hPa. Towards the oceans, pressure rises, reaching 1012 hPa over the northern waters of the East Siberian and Chukchi Seas, over the Barents Sea and the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Air masses rush deep into the mainland. Arctic air is cold and dry, especially in the eastern regions of the Arctic. Moving south, it quickly warms up and moves away from the state of saturation.
The Hawaiian (North Pacific) maximum in the summer moves to the north, approaching the Far Eastern borders of Russia, resulting in a summer monsoon. The Pacific Ocean air of moderate latitudes, and sometimes tropical, enters the mainland. In connection with the movement of the Azores maximum to the north, its spur penetrates the East European Plain. To the north and east of it, the pressure decreases. In the summer, western transport intensifies. From the Atlantic the territory of Russia receives sea air of moderate latitudes.
All air masses arriving in the territory of our country in the summer are transformed into continental air of temperate latitudes. An arctic front arises over the northern seas, the Barents and Kara, and east of Taimyr over the coastal regions of Siberia. A Mongolian branch of the polar front passes over the mountains of Southern Siberia, and an intramass front appears between the weakly transformed and continental air of moderate latitudes over the central regions of the East European Plain and Primorye.
The cyclonic activity is most pronounced on the East European Plain and in Primorye, where the differences in properties are especially great between moisture-saturated sea air of moderate latitudes (and sometimes tropical) and continental dry air. The intensification of cyclonic activity in the summer on the Arctic front causes long drizzling rains in the north of Russia.
In summer, most of the country has a maximum rainfall. In the tundra and taiga, it falls in the second half of summer, and in the steppe - at the end of spring - the beginning of summer. Since summer precipitation in most of the territory of Russia is associated with the flow of Atlantic air, their maximum falls on the western regions of the country. Over 500 mm of precipitation falls during the warm period in the coastal regions of the Kaliningrad region, over 400 mm in the strip stretching from the western border of Russia to the Northern Urals. To the east, the amount of precipitation in the warm period decreases, amounting to less than 200 mm in Central Yakutia. It also decreases to the north, especially to the northeast due to an increase in the frequency of Arctic air. In the Caspian Sea, about 150 mm of precipitation falls in the summer as a result of increased transformation of Atlantic air at high temperatures.
The amplitude of average monthly temperatures in January and July reaches its highest values \u200b\u200bin the temperate zone, increasing with distance from the Atlantic Ocean. In Kaliningrad it is 21 ° C, in the Smolensk-Pskov region 26-27 ° C, in the Urals it rises to 34-35 ° C, in Western Siberia it reaches 37-38 ° C, in the western part of the Central Siberian plateau 42-44 ° C, in Central Yakutia and basins of the Northeast 55-60 ° С. An increase in the temperature amplitude and, accordingly, the degree of continental climate from west to east is mainly due to an increase in the severity of winter. In the Far East, the temperature amplitude decreases to 44-46 ° C in the Amur region, 30-32 ° C on the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and 20 ° C in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The influence of the Pacific Ocean on both winter temperatures (moderate) and summer (cooling) is already affecting here, therefore, a sharp change in amplitude occurs at a short distance.
To the north, in the subarctic and arctic zones, a decrease in the temperature amplitude is mainly due to a decrease in summer temperatures.
The annual rainfall in the mountains and in the plains is significantly different. On the plains, the most precipitation falls in the band from 56 to 65 ° N. Within its limits, the annual precipitation decreases from west to east from 900-750 mm in the western part of the East European Plain to 650-500 mm in Western Siberia and to 300 mm or less in Central Yakutia. The increase in precipitation in the Yenisei part of Central Siberia to 800-1000 mm in the highest parts of the Putorana, Syverm and Tunguska plateaus is due to the influence of the orographic barrier.
In the Far East, annual precipitation increases to 1000-1200 mm in Sikhote Alin, Sakhalin and Kamchatka. In the southeastern part of Kamchatka, the amount of precipitation reaches 2500 mm. The increase in precipitation here is due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean and mountainous terrain.
To the north and northeast, and also south of this strip, the amount of precipitation decreases. Less than 300 mm of precipitation falls in the deserts of the Caspian Sea, and less than 250 mm in the tundra of the Northeast. Thus, the least amount of precipitation in Russia falls in the tundra of the Northeast, which is associated with the domination of cold and, therefore, dry continental Arctic air throughout the year.
An increase in precipitation is characteristic of all mountain regions: up to 1000 mm in the Urals, up to 1200 mm in Khamar-Daban, Sayan, Kuznetsk Alatau, up to 2000 mm in the high mountains of Altai. The maximum annual rainfall in Russia - up to 3,700 mm - falls on the windward southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus.
The mountains are characterized by a very uneven distribution of precipitation. Their maximum falls on the windward slopes, the leeward slopes and highlands are poorer in precipitation, and the intermountain basins are often very dry, especially in the mountains of Southern Siberia and the Northeast.
The annual amount of precipitation, however, does not give a complete picture of the provision of the territory with moisture, because part of them is lost to the surface as a result of evaporation. Heat and moisture in nature are closely interconnected, since heat is used to evaporate moisture. The higher the temperature of the air and the underlying surface, the more moisture can evaporate. Possible evaporation is characterized by evaporation. It, like precipitation, is measured in millimeters of the water layer and increases from the northern borders of Russia to the southern. In the tundra of Siberia, evaporation is less than 125 mm, and in the semi-deserts of the Caspian Sea exceeds 1000 mm. Actual evaporation cannot be more than the annual amount of precipitation; therefore, in semi-deserts and deserts of the Caspian Sea, it does not exceed 300-350 mm, although evaporation here is 3 times more. To the north, evaporation increases up to the southern taiga, reaching a maximum in the west of the East European Plain in the zone of mixed and deciduous forests (500-550 mm). To the north, evaporation decreases again, but here it is no longer limited by the amount of precipitation, but by the amount of evaporation.
Weekly tour, one-day hiking and excursions combined with comfort (trekking) in the mountain resort of Hadzhokh (Adygea, Krasnodar Territory). Tourists live at a camp site and visit numerous natural monuments. Rufabgo Waterfalls, Lago-Naki Plateau, Meshoko Gorge, Big Azish Cave, Belaya River Canyon, Guam Gorge.