In a number of European states, Holland occupies a significant place. This is not only a comfortable country for habitat, but also a special mentality of citizens who are tolerant relate to visiting tourists and migrants. Life in Holland at the same time calm and measured in small settlements, on the other hand, rather violent - in large cities.

Facts about the country

The state with a population of more than 17 million per quarter. km of territory accounted for an average of 404 people. Essentially the main part of Kingdom of the Netherlands. The capital is Amsterdam, but the main executive and legislative institutions are located in the Hague.

The high population density is greatly affected by the environmental situation, but the government is still solving this problem. For example, the rejection of personal vehicles in favor of bicycles is actively encouraged, this method of movement is very popular.

Life in the Netherlands, of course, has its pros and cons.

Nature and climate

The climate is moderate, winter is usually soft, summer days (compared to other countries) are pretty cool. The average annual temperature fluctuates from +3 to +17 degrees. It rains often.

Mentality and vital foundations of the local population

People who stayed in Holland for a long time, celebrate the friendliness of residents in relation to visitors. The most important thing is to comply with the laws of the country. Everything else has a secondary meaning.

It should also be noted that the Dutch tremendously relate to members of their families and relatives. But at the same time, they are very calculating, for example, they rarely collect noisy expensive feasts and save on heating.

Very popular sports, especially football and hockey hockey.

As belongs to the country to alcohol and light drugs

In the Netherlands, a free turnover of hemp is allowed, it is believed that this prevents the desire to use heavier - such as heroin. It is worth noting that marijuana (according to statistics) tried only 5% of the population.

Alcohol is more popular. On average, the citizen of the Netherlands drinks more than 7 liters per year (in recalculation of pure alcohol). Basically, this is beer, but local juniper vodka is also successful.

Russian immigrants in Holland

According to estimates in the Netherlands, a little more than 65 thousand people from Russia and the countries of the former Soviet Union are constantly living in the Netherlands. A significant part came as refugees. At the moment, it is almost impossible to get this status.

Life in Holland for Russians is complicated by the fact that the difference in mentalities is too large. Problems also arise due to poor knowledge of languages.

Quite often, Russian-speaking women conclude marriages with the Dutch and move to the country on permanent residence.

There is an opportunity (with good knowledge of the language) to work or enroll in a higher educational institution.

How do you live and where we work visiting

As a rule, Migrants are not able to buy their own apartments, so they live in removable apartments. Among the vacancies for employment can be listed the most common:

• Bartenders, cooks, waiters, guides.
• Designers, IT sphere workers.
• Drivers, builders (various specialties), technical staff.
• Qualified engineers (especially electronics).

Specialists with experience and good knowledge of languages \u200b\u200bare very valued.

It is related to what will have to take care of obtaining a visa.

It is important to consider: if official employment is planned, the employer will need to prove the fact of the absence of applicants for this vacancy from among citizens of the country.

Pensioners from Russia

Persons who came from other countries can qualify for full sociality in Holland, only if they lived on its territory for more than 50 years. If this term is less, the benefit will be paid only partially. But it is possible to compensate for the lack of years, paying a certain amount into the state treasury, which is calculated individually.

The retirement age in Holland is 66 years since 2019, and from 2021 it is expected to increase to 67.

It is also worth noting that the Russian pensioners who left in the Netherlands are entitled to provide social support in the Russian Federation. Registration occurs in the usual procedure in PF in the homeland.

Local attitude to visit

The indigenous Dutch relatively relate to migrants. If new inhabitants comply with local laws, they will not feel a special biased relationship. Thousands of people from different countries constantly live and work in the Netherlands without any difficulties.

Prices for food and other goods

As an example, you can bring a small list of basic products that are most often purchased.

Stores in Holland are distinguished by a variety. Many shopping lovers mark the care of trading network owners to each client, various shares are organized with gifts, address mailing is carried out.

During the sales period, prices for non-food products fall significantly.

With the fact that in the level of wages, Holland is located on 4th place in Europe, prices in Amsterdam can be considered high. The overwhelming number of citizens belongs to the average class, there is no strong income bundle.

Thanks to quite high taxes, the budget of Holland is consistently replenished and never has a scarce.

Work and payment

Anyone who received a visa can find a vacancy that interests him. The salary will depend on the direction and qualifications, usually consider to be € / year:

• In the sphere of IT and engineering -45 thousand ..
• Tourist business - Every 24 thousand ..
• Low-qualified work - on average 12 thousand.

The standard of living in the Netherlands is one of the highest in the European Union. Citizens of the Kingdom do not seek to take low-paid places, so in this sector it is easy to find a vacancy, and for women - in the service sector (governess, nannies, etc.)

It will imply tax deductions, so when considering ads, it is important to consider this deduction, it is usually not specified.

Taxation system

During residence in the country, it is important not to violate the laws.

Taxes in the Netherlands pay and residents and mobile migrants. County subjects are reported for global income, and other workers only for the funds they received within the kingdom.

1. Work on hiring, home ownership.

• 1-20 thousand euros - 5.85%;
• 20-34 thousand - 10.85%;
• 24-56 thousand - 42%;
• over 56 thousand - 52%.

1. Participation in the company's capital and profit, if the proportion is more than 5%. 25% deducted from the dividend amount.
2. When receiving revenue from savings and investments will be calculated 30%, but only 4% of the value of assets. If the amount is less than 21,129 euros, the tax is zero.

VAT for most goods and services is 21%, and the list of the most necessary rates are distributed - 6%.

When organizing its own business in the kingdom, it should be borne in mind that Russia has concluded an agreement to avoid double taxation with a number of countries, in particular, with the Netherlands.

The property

Holland - a member of the European Union, so there are no strong differences from other states, but there are some nuances.

Rent

Most visitors are located in removable accommodation. The subtlety lies in the fact that a significant part of the owners prefers to hand over property officially under the contract. Rent depends on the age of the structure (older - cheaper), the presence of furniture, location. Sweat all look for options on agencies sites.

The cost of removal of an apartment in Holland is an average of 800-1700 euros per month. Students can rent separate rooms for 300-500 € / month.

In ownership

The attractiveness of the acquisition of residential or commercial space is that the state guarantees the unshakable right to private property.

It is quite difficult to buy real estate, even in peak periods of crisis, the fall in prices was not more than 7% (in some cities there was an increase in sales).

The most inexpensive housing will cost about 200 thousand euros, we are talking about homes and apartments in small cities.

Luxury apartments with an area of \u200b\u200b100 square meters. m. will cost from 500 thousand €.

And the most profitable purchase is considered small houses in the suburbs of Holland, about 100 square meters. m. It will be necessary to pay 200-220 thousand.

Utilities

It should be added to the amount of rent also to the housing expenses, it is 200-450 € per year. Often the owner asks to pay a significant amount in advance, as a collateral in order not to have problems with utilities.

Fare

The easiest and cheapest version of the city is bicycles. Everything goes on them, even the king with the queen. For storage there are many cycling. On the roads, the motorist will be convicted if it collides with a two-wheeled vehicle. However, drunk management is still prohibited.

Buying a car

You can buy a car either from hand or in the car dealership. In the first case, the case risky will, as a rule, transport will be sold with a "twisted" speedometer, sometimes restored after the accident.

In the car dealership, you can bargain, at the cost of the car 7000 euros, it is quite realistic to "throw off" by 300 €, especially since this amount is already included in the price tag.

The cost of buying will be slightly higher than in Belgium or in Germany.

Insurance can be three species: one - mandatory, the rest - at will. The first (main) type will cost 10-200 euros, depends on the driving experience and from the car itself.

The remaining species can cover the damage in the event of a hijacking, natural disaster, fully compensate for expenses at any situations (CASCO analogue).

Rent a Car

Take the car makes sense only with frequent trips outside the city. It should be borne in mind that the average speed of movement in the megalopolis less than 50 km / h.

The rental price will be if you take a small economy model in Amsterdam, about 5-5.5 thousand rubles in three days.

You can order a car right near the airport.

The cost of gasoline

Fuel prices are relatively low for European standards. Basically, these are the products of the local Shell manufacturer.

Fuel type and cost in euros:

• 95 – 1,6;
• 98 – 1,7;
• DT - 1.3;
• Gas - 0.8.

All varieties are characterized by good quality.

Public transport payment

Most often use buses and trains. In the first form, it is better to ride small cities, not further than 10 km, but you should specify the route in advance: some of them are not direct, there is a wide coverage of neighboring settlements. The cost is very different, the cities have day and night routes.

The trains in the country go quite often up to 12 flights per hour in some directions, but they are often finding - for 5-10 minutes. The ticket purchase system is quite confusing, for example, in some cases a discount (40%) is valid, but a special discount card is needed. Also privileges receive students and civil servants, but only in weekdays, during some holidays and in the summer months.

The cost of travel depends on kilometer.

Social payments

Public benefits are issued by poor, unemployed, as well as retirees. Even in Holland, the most generous "hospital" compensation is paid - 70% of the salary, the term is up to 104 weeks.

Accrual pension

Since the main social allowance in the Netherlands is given, based on the duration of working experience and its own savings, its size may vary from 1000 (for single) to 1400 (for marital couples). And if the employee postponed additional funds, then an increase in the total amount is provided.

Unemployment benefit in 2019

After dismissal, the employee may claim to receive a payment within 164 weeks. In the first 9, it compensates for 75% of its average earnings, and then 70%.

Education in the country

There are 2 types of universities of the Netherlands.

1. Universities are emphasizing scientific work.
2. Applied - prepare most often engineers for production and business.

For receipt, it is enough to meet the following requirements:

• Age from 17 years (in universities - from 18);
• Certificate of the Russian School;
• Knowledge of English.

Duration of 3-4 years, often students work before the end of the university.

Different with emphasis on the following principles:

1. Training in teamwork.
2. Solving specific tasks (PBL).
3. Respect for someone else's opinion.

Since each 10 student is a foreigner, teachers try to maintain an international competitive learning environment.

Medical services

Services are physicians, both on mandatory insurance and additional.

The cost of the basic policy is 100 euros per month. Some of the main insurance services covers the patient himself. If it turns out that the person is located for more than 4 months without the policy in the territory of Holland, it is waiting for a penalty (about 370 euros).

To appeal to a general practice doctor, you need to make an appointment to it, after that you often have to wait a few days. The indigenous Dutch does not like to run on doctors and in most cases use telephone consultations.

In the threat to life, it is necessary to call emergency care, it works in the same way as in other countries - 24 hours a day.

RESULTS

Life in the Kingdom of the Netherlands is quite expensive, but some people come here and remains for various reasons.

It should be noted a high degree of loyalty of local authorities to businessmen, a minimum of inspections and simplicity of the opening of the case (even residents of other countries).

Life in Holland, mean work, recreation, wages, housing conditions, education, subjective well-being and social ties Has a high index. Only environmental indicators are below average in 2020. Also, as well as in any other country from the Schengen zone.

Windmills in Holland

Getting a good education and professional skills is a very important point to get a good job. But in terms of secondary education, residents of the Netherlands are slightly lower in terms of the OECD indicators (respectively - 73:75). And it concerns the male population more. Literacy in the country at a high level, which allows students to consider students in Holland among the best.

Verbeeten Hospital in Hertogenbos

Prices

Netherlands can not be called the cheapest place on the planet. Exacerbates the situation ever-growing euro rate relative to the ruble.

Accommodation

Upon arrival in a major city, there may be a problem with searching for housing, especially in students. After all, Holland universities do not have their own towns or hostels, as in Russia. But they can provide useful information on this issue.

Some educational establishments Assist, concluding agreements with some housing corporation. By agreement, students are offered a certain number of furnished rooms, they can be rented for limited time - two semesters. It will cost about 265 to 315 euros. In general, prices in the Netherlands for removable housing, and especially in the capital, depend on the location and vary from 300 to 600 euros monthly. This includes payment of communal and the Internet.

Transport

In Holland, they love to ride bicycles, which is for residents a kind of religion. On the roads, motorists are always inferior to bikes. After all, two-wheeled ride is useful for both the rideway itself and for ecology.

For preferring standard movements methods, there are public transport. With constant trips, it will be more profitable to purchase an OV chip card.

And for example, the price level for affordable public transport:

Food

Prices in the Netherlands in restaurants, cafes and supermarkets are different. Accordingly, food costs depend only on individual needs and capabilities. But, like everywhere, products are more profitable to buy in large stores. They offer the most affordable prices:

• Milk liter costs 0.90 euros;
• White bread loaf - 1.20;
• Chicken fillet kilogram will cost 6.50;
• Shelves of spaghetti - 0.90;
• For 400 g of white rice it will be necessary to pay 0.80 euros;
• 12 eggs will cost - two;
• A liter bottle of olive oil costs 5 euros.

Many institutions in Holland have discounts of the owners of a student card into small, but daily purchases. For example, such spending:

• Coffee cup - 2.50 euros;
• Three-liter water bottle - 1.80;
• In the middle-level restaurant, three dishes will cost 30 euros;
• For a glass of wine in a similar institution will take - 4;
• Movie campaign - 10 euros.

What can and what can not be done in Holland

Wine shop in Holland

For the third such violation of the law, prohibit work first during the week, and if the situation has not changed, then at all.

Drugs

Hashish with marijuana is considered light drugs in Holland, and there is a formal permission to buy and use. To do this, there are special shops and coffeeops, letting go to one hand 5 g.

Similar narcotic substances in Holland are potent, they are made of natural raw materials. Therefore, there is a chance of ignorance to get an increased dose when using ordinary baking, where the hashish is added. It is worth waiting for at least an hour to understand whether another bun is needed with such an additive or not.
When overdose, you can safely contact the nearest medical institution. There will help even with the use of "chemistry" or psychotropic drugs that are prohibited in the country. And the police will not be reported on this incident.

Smoking cafe in Holland

Smoking

In this matter, the Netherlands are solidar with the whole European Union, banning smoking in any public place. For those who have not yet abandoned this harmful habit, special places are provided.

Cheese shop on the market in the Netherlands

Medical care available to anyone - private. And for him you have to lay out round sums, while the quality of service leaves much to be desired. To the experienced physician working in the public institution, will be quite problematic.

Pensions

Holland has a relatively small territory and the number of people living, but currently has a very developed economic system and pension.
Holland offers its citizens three different types of pensions:

1. Basic - state.
2. Additional - Professional.
3. Individual.

The state pension (basic) is paid to every citizen of the country, which has reached 65 years. From all payments, this pension is exactly half. Thanks to this approach, it is possible to secure each person with pensions, which is easy for the country, especially if you consider a small number.

dutch pensioners

The pay difference depends only on the status of a pensioner: lonely get more, and married couples, respectively, less. For example, in the first case, the pension will amount to 70 percent of the salary, then in the second - 50.
Additional pensions are very popular in Holland. The program involves up to 91 percent of the working population.

Employees and employers pay contributions based on solidarity. It can be both established contributions and fixed payments. Basically, preference is given to the second option. And the "binding" of the pension size in this case depends on the level of employee wages.

Participate in this form of the Pension Fund have a prerequisite for any economic entity.

Pension Fund building in the Netherlands

Individual pension, or a non-state type of pension provision was not too popular in the country, but now the situation has become changed.

In the 16th century, the Sacredian Emperor Karl V brought 17 provinces from the empire, making them a heritage of the Dynasty of the Habsburgs. The ruler of the territories was his son Philip ιι, whose policies led to mass uprisings. These events called the Netherlands Revolution, we bring briefly in our article.

Start of events

Association of 17 provinces (a common unofficial name was "Netherlands") occurred in 1549. According to modern standards, they occupied the Netherlands, Belgian, Luxembourg, partially Northern French territories.

Power over seventeen provinces received Philip ιι (1555 year), which became in 1556 by the Spanish king. A number of events that occurred after that gave the impetus to the liberation movement in the Netherlands.

The main reasons for the beginning of the Netherlands Revolution are:

• Ever-increasing taxes (against the background of faults) aimed at keeping frequently unnecessary wars;
• The oppression of supporters of the propagating Protestantia (the direction of Christianity);
• Neglect of the rights of representatives of the Netherlands Supreme Society.

Fig. 1. Spanish king Philip ιι.

There are other names of the revolution in the Netherlands: the eighty-year-old war or war for independence. Soviet historians called it the Netherlands bourgeois revolution.

The course of revolution

The Catholic Inquisition has complicated the extremely tense situation in the Netherlands, who had lost the lives of thousands of residents. In response to her actions in Flanders, an anti-cultolic uprising flared up (August 1566), called iconoborous: Calvinists (a variety of Protestantia) ruined Catholic churches.

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Managing Parmskaya Dutch lands was forced to recognize Protestantism and cancel the Inquisition. The uprising has been suspended, but the situation as a whole has already been out of control, the splits of the nobility on supporters and opponents of Philipp ιι.

We highlight the key points of the revolution:

• The Spanish King in 1567 appoints the governor of the Duke Alba (Fernando Alvares de Toledo), who arrived with the 10-Titying Army. The "Council of Riots" is established, sending any involved in the rebellion;
• Wilhelm Orange and Prince Ludwig are hidden from the court in Germany; Having enlisted with the support of England, France, the Ottoman Empire, start in 1568 hostilities against Spain. The first battle in Geyligerlee they won, but further the advantage on the Alba side;
• Gone (rebels) under the leadership of Count De La Mark in 1572 captured the fortified port of the North City of Brill; The support of the uprising increased, Prince Wilhelm was proclaimed by the leader of the rebels and the manager of several northern provinces;
• Spain recognized himself bankrupt in 1575, without paying his sorry to his soldiers; Mercenaries raised a riot, arranging arson, robbery in Antwerp (1576);
• The Northern Protestant provinces concluded with the Catholic southern Gent Decience (1576) about the contribivia to the church faith and joint struggle with Spain;
• In 1579, part of the southern provinces refused the agreement, supporting Philip ιι (Arraskaya Union). The Nordic tighter united Utrecht Seni (1579). In 1581, they officially renounced the Spanish king;
• Wilhelm Orange in 1584 killed by Spanish fanatic;
• In 1587, Moritz Oransky became the command of the Army of Northern Netherlands, successfully seized a number of major cities;
• The United Provinces began the liberation of southern lands (1600), but lost the battle of Nyivport. Spain, from further active actions kept the presence of a powerful fleet from the Netherlands;
• In 1625, Moritz died; Spaniards captured the Dutch Fortress of Brad;
• In 1629, Frederick Orange took Hertogenbos, a large-held city with the Spaniards. In 1632, several more important cities, but the centers of the southern provinces could not be seized;
• In 1648, the confrontation stopped. Munster treaty concluded.

Fig. 2. Prince Wilhelm ι Orange.

During the Netherlands Revolution, the parties were announced a truce, which lasted 12 years (1609-1621).

results

The consequences of the revolution were disappointing for Spain. The result of military collisions was:

• Preservation under the authority of Spain only southern territories of the Netherlands;
• Recognition of the independence of seven northern Netherlands provinces and in fact the birth of the Free Republic of Holland (one of the provinces of the Netherlands, the name is often identified with the whole country).

Fig. 3. Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands.

What did we know?

Having considered the topic, which is studied in the 7th grade, we learned about the participants and the course of the revolution 1566-1648 in 17 provinces owned by Spain; found out the meaning of the events for the Netherlands.

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Hard tax system, features of the search for housing and moving and remarkable facts about Dutch trays.

The founder of the TINYBUILD game studio Alex Nichipper wrote for the DTF publication on the creation of a company in the Netherlands, living conditions and taxation of the country.

Now in the beautiful city of Amsterdam is the Unite conference. In Facebook tape, I see a bunch of acquaintances, admiring the city and the country as a whole. I lived there since 2010 to 2017 - exactly seven years.

I moved there in 2010 to work at Spil Games. There I got acquainted with the vitality of Flash developers, who eventually moved to the development of PC games. At the end of 2011, he began a third-party project that you today know how TinyBuild. We still have a studio in Holland, engaged in porting and firmware of games.

Now I am building a studio in the United States, the developments of which will be known at the beginning of next year. In this article I want to tell about the experience of seven years of life in Holland.

Why amsterdam does not represent the Netherlands

It is important to understand that Amsterdam is a tourist center and does not represent the country as a whole. It lives only 800 thousand people, and in the whole country - more than 16 million. For comparison, the territory of Latvia is almost the same size, and its population is only 2 million people. Holland populated is very tight and difficult to find rural wilderness or nature. The forests are very rare, paths and cards are neatly laid in each. It is almost impossible to get lost.

If you think about moving to Holland, I recommend the zone in the Teoi area. If we take on the map Amsterdam, Utrecht and Amersfour, then at any point of the formed triangle you can poke your finger and get into a good zone for life. Take a trip to Utrecht and look at it. Looks like Amsterdam, but cheaper with fewer tourists. Amersfour slightly away, but he has a wonderful center in the form of a fenced castle with walls.

Home Hilversum street. Heap of cafes and shops

Hilversum: Why I moved there and stayed

Initially, I moved to the city of Hilversum just because my employer company was based. For € 800 a month, it was possible to rent an apartment in 80 square meters, very close to the station, shops and work. Suddenly completely disappeared in the car.

I will talk about visa and legal issues separately. Now about the practical part.

Normal Park. In any city there is

When you move to Holland, a bureaucracy bureaucracy is suddenly flooded. I am talking about practical things like the Internet, registration of water provider, electricity, and the like. In no case do not save on the realtor. Remove the apartment through the agency. You will have to pay about three monthly fees: for the first and last month The owner of the apartment and another month for the services of the realtor.

Realtor will register you everywhere and make sure that you will have water and electricity. € 300 per person per month need to immediately lay on mandatory spending. This includes health insurance, utility payments and city taxes. You will pay for the flow of water into the house, for its filtering and infrastructure content - all individual companies. Therefore, the apartment for € 800 per month you will cost € 1- € 1.1 thousand in the form of mandatory costs.

It all needs to be borne in mind when negotiating a salary. Life in old Europe is very expensive.

My courtyard in Hilversum

Hilversum is 30 minutes away by train from the airport, and in it there is everything I needed: a beautiful center, a cinema, compactness and practicality. When I quit from Spil Games and began to build TinyBuild, it turned out that the University of HKU is also located there, in which Unity and Gamedizayn are trained - very convenient. To Amsterdam 20 minutes by train. And this is the center of the Teoi area, it is considered safe and beautiful. I sat on a bike - and after 15 minutes you are in the forest, 20 minutes - and you are on the beach on the lake.

This is a stone monument in Hilversum

Many consider Hilversum boring, and if you need a more partner place - you are clearly not here, it is better to live in Utrecht. There is a bunch of universities and a large partition scene, including the Gamedev community. And if you want a bunch of drunk Britons in Mankini, you in Amsterdam.

Wages, finance and benefits

In Holland, live expensive and in terms of prices for life, and in terms of taxes. If you are an IT specialist, move to Holland in the entire visa of a highly qualified emigrant. She puts forward a number of requirements in the form of education or outstanding achievements in the field of high technology and gives a greater tax discount.

When negotiating the salary you need to count on that at least 30% of it will go on taxes. Always stipulate "Gross" (income to taxes). Requirements for the salary for this visa are changing every year, but, as a rule, it is less than € 50 thousand per year. Most often, this figure is enough to rent accommodation and comfortably live.

30% Rulling

Immediately find out if you fall under 30% rulling - this is when 30% salary is not subject to taxes. That is, with salaries at € 50 thousand per year € 15,000 are automatically given by the "gift", without taxation. The same bun can shift you to the step below, as the tax system in the country is progressive. Calculate with 30% "roll rings" and without € 50,000 per year, using a calculator.

Without 30% of "Rulling"

Out of € 2.8 thousand "clean" per month. Note that the employer pays approximately 30% of its taxes from above. This applies only to employees. If you are driving your business and consider yourself in hiring, add another 30% on top.

So, if you ask yourself a salary of € 4 thousand per month (approximately € 50 thousand a year), home without tax breaks will be charged € 2.8 thousand.

With 30% "Ringling"

The taxable salary turns out to be € 37 thousand per year. There are reasons why it is not exactly "minus 30%." It's complicated. You yourself find the progressive taxes for 2017 together with non-taxable minima.

As you can see, the difference is essential. In 2010, this discount was given for 10 years, today they give for seven. Her task is to integrate international specialists in society. Without her earn it becomes very expensive. The highest level of income tax is 52%. It means that at one point you understand that I spent € 1 from above each € 1 that spend.

Property Checking

Living room and home office. Here, TinyBuild began, at one moment eight people were sitting here - until the office was removed. This staircase broke my finger on my leg. Drunk it will not go down

In Holland, you can get a loan for the purchase of a house. It is very difficult and necessary to have a lot of money on the account, good work history, a permanent working contract and so on. But You can write off with taxes to the house.

Structure of labor contracts

Yes, in Holland everything is very expensive in terms of taxes. And if you are an employer - do not fit there at all. In addition to laws on taxes by the employer, that I mentioned, there are still catching contracts.

For example, if I take a person to work, I give him a contract for the year. If suddenly decide to dismiss him in three months - I need to pay him for the whole year.

If I extend the contract, I can extend for a year or two (everything is done for one year). But the third contract must be permanent. People with a permanent contract can almost be dismissed - it is necessary to negotiate. By law, this is at least one salary for each year of the employee's work (if there are weighty reasons for dismissal). If they are not, people pay and salary for two years. I saw employees with permanent contracts leaving "cheat" for a year and a half, while after the ninth month of the hospital they were still obliged to pay 70% of the salary.

The country is full of castles and ancient architecture. Holland did not touch at all during World War II

Holland - Paradise for workers and blood pressure for innovators and phants.

For the founders of companies, minimum salary requirements are set. This means that I, as the director of my company, I can not pay myself a salary of € 0. Mounted minimum, and to get around, you need to ask exceptions from the government.

Is it easy to be freelance or individual entrepreneur?

I asked this question when we started the studio. Short answer - no. There is a law that prevents the work of freelancers for one client for more than six months a year. Many are trying to bypass it through the structure of firms. We have moved employees between several paying companies, although in fact everyone worked on one project. It works, but not long.

The only thing you can do as an employer is to pay another 30% on top of all taxes and work through the recruitment agency. They have licenses for issuing hourly contracts without restrictions.

For all these reasons, gaming development is very poorly developing in Holland. In addition to the Guerilla Games there is no one. All indie of the first generation extinct, or cannot expand due to restrictions on the risks of hiring employees. This, honestly, shameful. For the same reason, I left there. But the article is not about it.

Purely, everyone smiles, and no lower or top class

Yes, taxes are huge and it's all very sad in terms of creating a business. But if you drive to work in a well-established IT company, then Holland is paradise.

Everyone smiles. Everywhere purely. No homeless. Almost all drugs are decriminalized. Everyone is in the "average" class. Last, I hope, obviously - if there are huge taxes, it is very difficult to be rich. And the poor supports a strong social system.

The Dutch is perfectly thought out the help system. It is impossible to fall so hard that there will be no home. Most homeless people turn out to be in such situations due to mental disorders, but there are decisions in the country and these problems. As I said, I saw people that went to the hospital for a year. This is called "Burnout" (when tiring at work). It sounds like a joke, but there is something in it.

There is little sun in the country, bad weather, and people begin to fall into depression. If you are on the street and you want to eat - you are not going to ask for help. You add to the local government, it gives you the night and go to exchange for the fact that you are going to a specialist and integrate you into society.

Example with game developer

Comes to me for an interview developer. Learned at Unity Developer University (bachelor's degree). Year sits without work. I ask what he did this year. Says - I collect unemployment, it's hard, I tired already. Wants to work. I ask - and where are examples of work? Where is the experience? He says that there is no experience, because he is engaged in receiving unemployment benefits. It is clear that such an unmotivated person I will not keep in the office.

The next day the government calls me, and begins to bargain. "Well, give him a chance! We will pay for his salary for four months! For six! And let us give tax discounts! "

The system has comic moments, but it works.

The standard of living is actually very high. No poor. No rich. People are very happy and enjoy life. For example, if you want to buy a car - for example, BMW 5 series - pay 20% from above of market value as a tax, € 200 per month and € 150 for insurance. Large heavy cars are luxury, and she is very expensive.

In Holland, there was no financial crisis of the late 2000s. It is difficult to get loans (even a credit card), and therefore residents did not feel the consequences. People know how to enjoy what they have. Therefore, when I came to work on a healthy SUV (with Latvian numbers), I was condemned and afraid.

People are afraid to stand out, be normal - it is quite insane. They are very compound and love binary approach to tasks. From here there is a charm of small doll dutch houses. Therefore, no one dresses beautifully. Dutch girls do not know the words "heels" and "cosmetics". Imagine what to come with an excellent Ukrainian girl to a corporate party.

All these things help in business, because people are afraid of conflicts. For example, the head of the university, from which we hired employees, once tried to press me publicly - why we do not hire everyone with the "right" contracts. I went to the local talk show, in the open summoned on this topic and all the Dutch government - they say, why do you shrink the startups? As a result, I was offered to be a lecturer at this university.

One of the early corporates TinyBuild. They swam on a boat on the lake, drank beer. In good weather, it is customary to shoot a boat and sail on one of the islands with restaurants there are burgers

How to shove 10 Dutch in "Mini Cooper"

There is a Belgian anecdote. The Dutch is typically high. Mini Cooper - the car is small. How to shove in her 10 Dutch? Throw a coin there.

When Julia, our PR-Director, worked as the director of the shovehouse in Casual Connect, an amusing situation was released on their Amsterdam show. Removed hostel for indie developers. The total amount is over six thousand euros. When transferring money somewhere on the Costa, € 10 was lost. Because of these unfortunate € 10, the hostel called and threatened to cancel the reservation. I had to ask friends to flee this hotel and pay extra.

It is very difficult to work with the Dutch. They are very, very picky and greedy in terms of money. No Dutchman says: "Okay, then you will return." This is connected with the tax situation described above.

"Let's drink beer today?" - "No, I can after 14 weeks"

More than the Dutch love to plan. I have never seen someone after work I could easily get up and drink beer. Usually it was a group of foreigners. True Dutchman has already planned everything for half a year ago.

At first it was very annoyed. Then I realized that this was necessary because of the overall structure of the work: you want to see a doctor in four weeks. You can't just come anywhere and say "I want to do this", for example, ride a karting or play paintball. There are so many people in the country that initiatives need to be planned in advance and the schedule is quickly clogged.

It is also complicated by the fact that many every day traveling 100-150 kilometers in one direction. A very developed system of trains and on working hours, many spend in them for 2-3 hours. There is almost no time for spontaneity.

I learned how to look for a balance in this, but honestly, in my personal life in one week in the United States, I dare more than a month in Holland.

Drugs

Yes, almost everything is decriminalized in the country. You can buy that Marikhanu is that "mushrooms". For strong drugs, no one will plant. Many people ask me how bad and how often "meet drug addicts". The answer is very simple - I have never seen the fights of "smoky" people. Everyone is sitting on the coffee shops and play chess or other benchmarks. These are very friendly people. And the strong drugs use the British in Amsterdam (nobody loves them).

In the Holland, the culture of tolerance towards such. If you want to do something - do, most importantly, do not bother others around yourself. Therefore, there are no problems with drugs as such. And with such social help people always have to talk to.

Culture "Not My Work"

Another reason why in Holland badly with gaming development and very good with any stable industry is an approach to work. They love specialization. My job is to make a picture. Your one is to insert it to the site. We do it well and efficiently. If suddenly I need and do and insert this picture, the system collapses. Culture cannot work with multitasking.

Therefore, they can successfully take existing technologies and optimize them. Build effective processes that can be "tokel". And in the gaming industry it does not work, as the processes change every year and a half. And if you can't dismiss people that you no longer need, business collapses. But if you can build a process in the stable industry and hire people who are very responsible for their only task, you can succeed.

Several interesting facts

Normal phenomenon: Dutch housewife

• Bike is life. Everywhere there are walkways, the country is flat. I love to ride on it by bike.
• The last Monday of January is called "Blue Monday" - this is when no one has seen a few months. Jumps up the number of suicides, it feels the whole country. The only way to kill myself is to jump under the train, the country "gets up" because the trains do not go.
• People love open windows. Walk and look who does what. Culture of openness at first shocks.
• The correct pronunciation of the letter "g" is as if you have a glass fragments stuck in the throat.
• The Dutch is high and ride bicycles. And therefore, they have huge light, and in the evenings, when they are going to the bar, it becomes insanely loud. Seriously, you can.
• In the same bars (and not only) they love to crowd. 150 people will stand 50 meters and feel comfortable.

I am drinking beer. I buy four to 0.3 at once, so as not to go for the additive

Beer drink from very little glasses - 0.3. The theory is that beer then does not get warm and does not exhale. I agreed with this for the third year, when I drank 27 such glasses for the evening.

In xv century In Europe, there was a major state that was called the Duchy of the Burgundy. It extended an extensive strip from the south to north of Europe between France and Germany. Its northern part formed the Netherlands - a number of provinces located along the lower flow of Shelda, Maas and the Rhine.

The Netherlands occupied the territory at which modern Netherlands (Holland), Belgium, Luxembourg and some areas of the northeastern part of France are now located. They had 17 provinces, the largest of which were: Flanders, Brabant, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Art Magnia and Gennagau. From 1519 The Netherlands, being part of the Duke of the Burgundy, and at the same time have long been a vassal dependence associated with the empire, turned out to be included in the huge Empire Karl V.

The state system of the Netherlands remained very peculiar. This was explained by the features of their historical development. In the Netherlands already in the XIV-XV centuries. Credit relations and handicraft production have achieved very high development. There were first capitalist manufactories. It gave great strength and independence to the cities. At the same time, the Netherlands until the middle of the XVI century, despite the well-known successes of the Habsburgs in the creation of a centralized bureaucratic apparatus, were the federation of previously small feudal gravity and dukes that retained a number of old vintage libations and privileges.

The political system of the Netherlands was a dual character. There was a centralized government apparatus. The actual ruler of the Netherlands was usually the governor (General Council of the Emperor), and after the collapse of the Empire of Karl V in 1556 - King of Spain. At the governor, there was a public council that consisted of representatives of nobility, and advice - financial and secret, which included representatives of the nobility, urban bourgeoisie and royal legists (lawyers). Representatives of the central authorities in the field were provincial staff, usually - immigrants from the local aristocracy.

Along with the authorities of the Central Royal Power of the Habsburgs there were estate representative institutions - general states in the center and provincial states in each province. The states belonged to the right to establish taxes. In addition, in cities and towns there were governments that were in the hands of the Burger Tips and Patricate, and each of the 17 provinces and every city had special privileges. Thus, the royal power in the Netherlands was to a certain extent limited in their actions.

The Netherlands represented a huge value for Karl v. They not only gave him enormous financial funds (6692 thousand livres in only 1552), but also were an essential military-strategic bridgehead against France and opponents of Karl V from among the German princes.

The Netherlands also learned some benefits from their belonging to the Empire of Charles V. Being the economically most developed country of Europe, they captured almost all the trade with Spanish colonies into their own hands and a significant part of financial operations and foreign trade of the empire, which contributed to the further economic development of the Netherlands. They held a special position in the Empire Karl V and used the economic benefits arising from this.

However, in the second half of the reign of Karl V, due to endless financial extortion and ruin wars, which were conducted by Habsburgs in the interests of the pan-European feudal-Catholic response to the funds received from the Netherlands, there was dissatisfaction with the country. It was also expressed in increasing the number of the uprisings of the urban and rural poor, and in the spread of various creeds, opposing themselves in the Catholic religion, - Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anabaptism, and others. To combat herds, the government has been the beginning of cruel laws against heretics, So-called posters. But the main reason of the brewing general conflict was deeper, was rooted in the very character and conditions of the socio-economic development of the Netherlands.

The development of capitalist relations in the first half of the XVI century.

By the middle of the XVI century. The Netherlands experienced a heyday and were the most densely populated country of Europe: more than 300 cities were located in a small territory and 6,500 villages.

The dominant trend of the economic development of the Netherlands was the decomposition of feudal relations, the process of so-called initial accumulation, folding the relations of bourgeois. However, not all 17 provinces of the Netherlands reached the same degree of development. They shared in this respect to three groups: the Central Industrial District - Flanders and Brabant; The northern industrial group of provinces, the core of which was Holland and Zealand; Increased, mainly agricultural provinces - artoi, Luxembourg, Namur, Heldern. The remaining provinces on their economic development occupied an intermediate position.

The old "good" cities of Flanders and Brabant - Gent, IPR, Brussels, Luvan already from the XIII century. There were centers of the developed workshop craft and conducted a wide scale to the then-scale trade. But by the middle of the XVI century. The workshop system has declined. The main goals are Tsekhobeschikov - under the influence of competition developed in the village and new city centers (in Hondshote, Valencienne, Antwerp, etc.) of the capitalist mainfactory wool production lost their meaning. Other goals, externally retaining old traditions and forms, also decomposed and Hareli. The oligarchic top of the shop masters led a fierce struggle against the developed capitalist manufactory. Simultaneously, she admired the apprentices before the position of the powerless workers, devoid of opportunities to become ever-independent artisans. Many shops masters themselves had a member of themselves, fell into the chain paws of the Rostovshchikov and the buyers and lost their own independence.

Capitalistic production in the form of manufactory for the manufacture of woolen, silk, linen and cotton fabrics, carpets, tapestries, lace, glass, leather and metal products developed by a rapid pace. In Flanders and Brabant, there were both centralized and scattered manufactories, subordinate to the work of rural and urban handicrafts who worked at home, as well as mixed type manufactories.

Antwerp, the largest port city of Brabant, turned into an important center of trading and financial activities. To him, the manufactory of the cities of Flanders and Brabant, connected mainly with exports; They made a finish of English Sukon, glass products, soap, sugar and other goods were produced. The huge and well-established port of Antwerp was the parking lot of thousands of ships arriving from all the countries of the world, including from Spanish and Portuguese colonies. In Antwerp, the offices of all major financiers of Europe were focused, on its stock exchange daily up to 5 thousand merchants of various nationalities converged.

In Holland, Zealand and Utrecht, workshop production also inferpedible the place of capitalist manufactories produced in large quantities of woolen and linen fabrics (Leiden), ship equipment, canvas. Widely developed naval and shipbuilding. Thus, along with the ruin of workshops and the impoverishment of small independent artisans, which became hired workers manufactory, was the allocation of a bunch of large capitalists, cash resources and means of production.

An important place in the economy of the northern provinces was occupied by fisheries and trade. Amsterdam, as well as the ports of Zealand - Middleburg and Flissinggen led a lively trade with England, Scotland, Baltic States, Gansa and the Russian state. The backward agricultural provinces - Heldern, the Dutch, Overalesell were sold across the Dutch and Zealand ports of livestock farming and through the same ports they received the missing bread and other goods.

In Flanders's agriculture and partially, the censorship is gradually inferior to the short-term feudal lease. There was also a capitalist lease. Farmers and rich townspeople, buying noble lands, all the most persistently displaced the nobles from economic activity. In Holland and Zealand, great works were carried out on the drainage of the marshes, and the drained areas, the so-called Polders, surrendered under the conditions of the capitalist rental farmers, which, having large money, started large dairy farms in the entrepreneurial type on these lands. Nobles themselves moved to capitalist methods of farming. This was accompanied by the seizures of community lands, a squint of peasants-holders on feudal right from their land plots, acts of direct robbery and violence against peasants. Many peasants turned into bars, workers manufactory and just homeless vagrants.

In general, all these processes characterize the folding in the Netherlands in the depths of the feudal society of capitalist relations. Their essence was in the concentration of capital in the hands of the bourgeoisie and the expropriation of the working people of the city and village - artisans, apprentices and peasants, who turned into devoid of production of workers of manuff, bara, pivotchikov, and often in the early XVI in the early XVI . Fierce "workers laws" were published.

Despite the seeming uniformity of the economic development of the central and northern industrial groups of provinces, there were differences between them, which in the future became more and more intensified. CAPITALISTICS Wrest Top Manufactory of Flanders and Brabanta largely depended on the wool imported from Spain and focused on the subordinates of Spain markets. In its structure, these were predominantly scattered manufactory. In these provinces, the nobility enjoyed great political influence. Earth-bored landwomen themselves exploited peasants with feudal and semi-sorted methods.

Despite the rather fast paced the expropriation of the peasantry and development rental relationshipsIn general, the peasantry of the central provinces was still embankment by many feudal beans associated with the Earth. Therefore, the domestic market was still very developed here. Trade Antwerp was predominantly intermediary. This city almost did not have its own ships. All this made the economy of Flanders and Brabant very vulnerable and put into greater dependence on Spain.

In the north, on the contrary, even relatively backward agricultural provinces were drawn into commodity-cash relations. In Holland, Zealand and Friesland, the nobility owned a relatively small part of the lands, and there was a rather significant layer of invalid free peasants who owned the land of property in these provinces. The capacity of the domestic market, and therefore, the base for the development of capitalist relations were much wider, and the presence of a powerful marine fleet and the orientation of trade in England, Baltic States and Ganza did the entire economy of these provinces with almost independent of Spain. Moreover, Spain herself could not do without bread, brought with Dutch merchants. The Northern Provincial Shopping Center was rapidly developed - Amsterdam.

Between the two economic centers of the Netherlands - Antwerp in the south and Amsterdam in the north there was a rivalry, which the farther, the more weakened the first of these cities and strengthened the second.

In the provinces of Gennagau, Artoi, Luxembourg, Namur, Geldern, feudal relations and positions of the nobility were very strong. The emerging capitalist relations and in these provinces were signed and decomposed feudal production, but these processes were processed here in a slow pace.

Arrange class forces on the eve of the revolution

The Netherlands bourgeoisie in its nature was close to the medieval burgherness: it was a period of transformation of a medieval third class in the class of bourgeoisie. Contradictions between the bourgeoisie, on the one hand, the Spanish absolutism and the nobility - on the other, have not yet taken an antagonistic nature. Therefore, the Netherlands bourgeoisie was inclined to fluctuations and compromises, especially in the face of its economically strongest part - a large trading bourgeoisie.

Only the foremost part of the Netherlands bourgeoisie began to be aware of his class interests. It was mostly mainly owners of manufactory and merchants associated with the domestic market, representatives of the intelligentsia were adjacent to it - lawyers, doctors, etc. These segments of the population elected their class requirements in the doctrine of Calvinism. The political form of their organization was the Calvinist Consists, which had a well-known influence on the peasantry, as well as the petty-bourgeois and plebsisian-democratic elements of cities.

Anabaptist sects were very popular in the national masses, the PZs whom many preached the violent overthrow of the existing system, the idea of \u200b\u200bproperty equality and the destruction of all the authorities - secular and spiritual.

Strengthening the Spanish oppression in the second half of the XVI century.

With an entry in 1556 to the Spanish throne of the Son of Emperor Charles V, King Philip II, who after the Empire section went to the Netherlands, the opposition senties in the country increased.

In Spain, by this time, the victory of the feudal reaction over the weak sprouts of capitalism has already been fully determined. The dominant class of Feodalov built his welfare on the robbery of the subjects, which belonged to the Netherlands. Philip II plans to subjugate the feudal-Catholic reaction to all of Europe were a reflection of those goals that have set reactionary Spanish feudals.

Philip II, from the very beginning, decided to establish a bureaucratic system of Spanish absolutism in the Netherlands in order to fully economic, political and religious subordination of the country. To achieve this goal, the Spanish government has identified the following activities: an increase in the number of Spanish troops in the country; The concentration of the actual authorities in the hands of the narrow composition of the State Council (Consults), whose members were the faithful servants of the Spanish government, giving the bishops of the Inquisition authority to combat the hairs and the creation of 14 new bishops; The unconditional execution of laws against heretics - "posters", which, with Karl V, were used with known caution.

This was followed by a number of new events, affected the most pressing economic interests of the Netherlands. In 1557, Philip II declared state bankruptcy, as a result of which many Netherlands bankers suffered huge losses. In 1560, the tax on wool exported from Spain was introduced, and therefore its imports in the Netherlands declined at once from 40 thousand to 25 thousand kils per year. The Netherlands merchants were actually suspended from trade with the colonies that the Spaniards declared their monopoly. Higher harm caused the Netherlands of the hostile and the Netherlands of Philip II, as trade with England was a significant part of the Netherlands's current bulk operations and dozens of thousands of people were occupied. These reactionary events of the Spanish authorities inflicted a blow to the interests of almost all social sections of the Netherlands and threatened to destroy the country's economy. Many manufactory closed, thousands of people lost their jobs and together with their families were doomed to hunger and poverty. The emigration of artisans and merchants to other countries began.

The fact that all these acts proceeded from foreign rulers attached them to them the nature of the national oppression. Conductors of the national oppression policy were, in particular, the governor of the Spanish king in the Netherlands Margarita Parm and its chief adviser to Granvell, who deserved the universal hatred of the Netherlands.

So, the new, capitalist forms of production and the new classes that have developed in the depths of the feudal society and the new classes standing throughout the way in the way of their further growth of the fierce resistance of the separation forces of feudalism.

Under these conditions, the removal of the feudal system and the ingenic Spanish dominion - the feudal order in the country - could only occur through the bourgeois revolution and warriors for independence. The revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie, who spent under the banner of Calvinism, headed this struggle the main driving force was the peasantry and city plebs, which most of all suffered from the weave of feudal and capitalist exploitation. They were opposed by Spanish absolutism and his main support - the Catholic Church and the main part of the nobility. However, the other part of the nobility, especially the petty, which was supplanted by the Spaniards from various posts and from the army was opposed to the opposition to the Spanish government.

Ringing the revolutionary situation

Under the influence of the events described in the early 60s, strong fermentation began in the country among the city plebs and the peasantry. Calvinism and Anabaptism made huge successes in industrial cities, villages and towns of Flanders, Brabant, Holland, Friesland and other provinces. According to a testimony of one inquisitor, the surroundings of the cities of Primorskaya Flanders were full of heretics. The crowds of armed men were going to listen to heretic preachers, and the governor of the Spanish king in the Netherlands Margarita Parm estimated these events as the "greatest shock of public peace."

In Valencienne in 1561, the people dispersed the gendarmerie and the members of the magistrate and saved from the execution of two heretics. In Antwerp, who beat the center of Yeresy, in 1564, during the execution of the monk-list of Christopher Fabrichus, there were collisions between the people and guards. Preaching, and sometimes the bourgeois calvinist consists were led by mass performances. In the opposition struggle against Spanish absolutism, the Netherlands nobility began to be retracted, which feared for the fate of his medieval privileges. The nucleus of the noble opposition was at first formed around the three members of the State Council: Count Egmont, Prince Orange and Admiral Gorn. All three were representatives of old aristocratic families. Expressing the will of the nobility of the Netherlands, they began to oppose the government in the State Council, demanded the restoration of the country's liberties, the withdrawal of the Spanish troops, the resignation of Granvella, the abolition of the "posters" against heretics.

The noble opposition was able to satisfy only some of their claims: the resignation of Granvella (1564) and the withdrawal of Spanish troops, but Philip II categorically insisted on the steady execution of the "posters" and showed full indifference to the country's economic and political needs. Therefore, anti-government performances and preaching of Protestants took an increasing time.

Anti-West sentiments also intensified because foreign dominance was shown by the national development of the Netherlands, and the reactionary actions of the Spanish absolutism were perceived as national persecution.

In 1565-1566 The situation in the Netherlands has become extremely tense. Bourgeois Calvinist Consists, which themselves behaved against the "posters" and the inquisition, struggled to restrain the revolutionary head of the masses. Even the noble opposition in the conditions of the growing wave of the popular perturbation was forced to go further than it originally wanted, hoping to use the people's movement in their class interests.

In November 1565, the noble opposition was made to the Union of "Agreement", or "compromise". The nobles opposed their medieval liberty to the absolutism, and the reform of the Catholic Church wanted to use for personal enrichment due to the land and riches selected from the church. At the same time, they protested against the Spanish negle and Spanish Inquisition. The text of appeal to the government, which was both the opposition program simultaneously. On April 5, 1566, this appeal in a solemn atmosphere was awarded to the governor of the Spanish king Margarita Parm's deputation of the Union "Compromise" as part of several hundred noons. Their poor clothing gave one of the nobles the reason to contemptively call them Goezaman, i.e. by the poor. This nickname was picked up by all the fighters for the independence of the Netherlands, with pride called himself by Goezi.

Referring to the observance of ancient liberties and mitigating the harassment of heretics, the nobles indicated in the appeal, the failure to comply with these conditions can cause "universal-excitement and riot" and its first victims will be nobles, as "most susceptible to difficulties and disasters that usually arise from such infants."

In the summer of 1566, the league of the noble entered into an alliance with consistory, which in his statement demanded from the nobles "not to stop on the threshold, but move forward" and proved the need for the fact that the Natisk of the masses is impossible to restrain. It was decided to create a combined advice.

The class interests of the bourgeois, headed by the consistory, and their closer relationship with the masses pushed them into the path of revolutionary actions. They stated that if the government refuses to satisfy their demands, then it will be necessary to "beat the priests, loud-to-church and destroy the images of the saints."

Spanish authorities in the Netherlands turned out to be in the situation more and more isolation. It became clear that it is no longer possible to rule the same methods. The country has been brewing a revolutionary situation.

Economic uprising of 1566

In the summer of 1566, many thousands of armed participants gathered sermons and processions of heretics. The authorities could not counteract them. In August 1566, the movement takes the form of an open armed uprising aimed against the main Optotet of Spanish domination - the Catholic Church. There were numerous defeasors of churches, the destruction of icons and statues of saints (iconobocretion). Motion centers were industrial areas of Hondshot, Ipra, Kassel and Armantier. The crowds of armed workers manufactory, artisans and peasants everywhere thickened Catholic churches and monasteries, destroyed the icons, statues, took the precious utensils and passed its urban magistrates for the needs of the poor.

In Antwerp, the initiators of the iconocobal movement were artisans and urban poor. In the tour in the defeat of churches, 800 peasants from the surrounding villages took part. Many rich merchants were involved in the uprising. Special military detachments were created here, which were guarded by order in the city. They were kept at the expense of confiscated property. Distboresose all the documents containing the privileges of churches and monasteries. The same happened in Valencienne.

In Middleburg, the iconoborets, with the support of rich individuals and even some members of the magistrate, forced the magistrate of the city to release prisoners in heretics prison. In the Utrecht, the action of the iconoborets was carried a pronounced social and political character, and Margarita Parm assessed them not only as "the removal of religion, but also as the destruction of legal proceedings and the entire political order."

The total scope of the iconocobal uprising was grandiose. For several days, it covered 12 out of 17 provinces. In one of the Flanders, over 400 churches and monasteries were defeated, and in total in the Netherlands - 5500. This indicates the mass nature of the uprising. Aside of him, there were backward agricultural provinces, where iconocological speeches took place only in several major cities.

The authorities turned out to be powerless before this powerful movement of the masses. Margarita Parm has forced to go for some concessions. On August 23, 1566, she officially announced its consent to the abolition of the Inquisition, the mitigation of the "posters", the amnesty to the members of the Known Union "Compromise" and on the assumption of Calvinist worship in specifically for this designated premises.

Scope and the strength of the uprising scared not only the government. The members of the "compromise" and bourgeoisie were frightened. The nobles unconditionally accepted the conditions of Margarita, dissolved their union and together with government troops began to suppress the uprising. The consistory negotiations with the government, but have already renounced their own participation in the uprising and from leadership them, arguing that it happened without their "knowledge and harmony".

The primitive, indecisive position of the bourgeoisie deprived of the uprising of the manual. Consistorial preachers everywhere called on the masses "stop the rebellion" and obey the authorities. For some time, the masses continued to be a spontaneous heroic struggle. However, by the spring of 1567, the last islands of the uprising in Antwerp and Valencienne were suppressed.

Despite the promises of Margarita Parm, the Netherlands still remained in the power of despotism and the inquisition. In Madrid, it was decided that the Duke Alba will gather a strong army and, invading the Netherlands, cruelly reaps all the "rioters" and "heretics".

The terrorist mode of the Duke Alba

August 22, 1567 Army Alba joined Brussels. Thousands of families even before her joining panic left the country's limits. They were among them some aristocrats, in particular the prince Wilhelm Orange, who became the head of the noble-emigrant opposition. Margarita Parm was revoked.

Don Ferdinand Alvater de Toledo, Duke Alba, Spanish Grand and Catholic fanatic, was distinguished by a despotic character and irresistible stubbornness. An experienced commander and diplomat, he, however, was not able to understand the events that took place in that country, to "pacify" he was sent.

The data to him Philip II instructions were categorical. Alba actually received the dictator rights. All carriers of the "spirit of rebellion" and "heresy" were subject to physical extermination. Duke Alba immediately began to exercise these destiny. Spanish garrisons are located in all major cities and citadels of the country and treated "inexorated" (so they called all the Netherlands), as with the natives of the Spanish colonies on September 9, Alba was arrested by the leaders of the aristocratic opposition - Counts of Egmont and Gorna, as well as Burgomistra Antwerp Van Stolen, Alba , like Philip II, was still inclined to consider opposition nobles and their leaders by the main instigators of the "unrest".

In September, he was established and began his activities "Council for Money Affairs", called "Blood Council". On the basis of sentences of this terrorist trill for the period 1567-1569. Over 8 thousand people were executed, not counting many thousands who were subjected to other types of sentences. On June 5, 1568, the leaders of the aristocratic opposition of Egmont and Gorn were executed. By destroying all opposition elements, the Alba simultaneously wanted to turn the court confiscation to the source of enrichment of the Spanish treasury.

In March 1569, a draft law was submitted for the approval of general states on the introduction of the Spanish taxation system in the Netherlands, which was called Alcabala. Alcabalu included 1% tax from all movable and real estate, 5% - from the sale of all real estate and 10% - with each trading transaction on movableness. In the conditions of the Netherlands, where every product passed through many hands before getting to the consumer, the introduction of a 10% tax on each transaction was equivalent to an equally economic catastrophe. Outrage covered the whole country. With great difficulty, the General States persuaded the Alba to postpone the introduction of Alcabala until 1571, but as long as it is limited to the annual payment from the Netherlands to the Spanish treasury in the amount of 2 million Florins. 1% tax was still charged and gave 3,300 thousand flora.

Parisan People's Fight against Spanish Despotism

The struggle of the masses against terror Alba began immediately upon his arrival. A lot of small artisans of workers manufactory and peasants, throwing their homes, disappeared in the forests of the surroundings of Dieppe, Ipra, Kassel and Odenard in Flanders. From here they led the fierce guerrilla war against the Spaniards and their accomplices. They destroyed small detachments of Spanish soldiers, executed - by sentencing secret consistory - Catholic priests and judicial officials. Hundreds of Armed Flemish emigrants returned back from England and joined these forest goeses. The peasants of the surrounding villages provided folk avengers with food and reported them on the actions of government troops and authorities.

The same events took place in the north of the country in 1567-1568. In North Holland, a strong peasant uprising broke out, but, devoid of leadership, it was defeated. Then fishermen and sailors of Holland, Friesland and Zealand - "Sea Geza" - on their lungs and high-speed ships began a fierce struggle with the Spaniards on the sea. Initially, the Prince Orange did not want to keep connections with "Maritime Goezi", but in the future I installed the connection with them and tried to subordinate them to myself. Wilhelm Orange began to give the "sea goezam" caper testimonies, which provided them with the right to wage war against the Spaniards and seize their trial. A year later, noblemen appeared on the ship's ships (de Luma, De La Mark et al.), Gradually picking up the leadership in their own ways, despite this, in the fleet of the goose, the revolutionary spirit was parked.

One day, "sea gone" captured a whole fleet of Spaniards in the amount of 46 ships with money and values. Another time they mastered the caravan of 30 ships and committed a devastating ride to the city of Monkendam.

Gone on the seaports of England was based, for some time a patronage provided them in order to weaken their enemy - Spain.

Prince of Orange and Noble Emigration Politics

Prince Wilhelm Orange was not a Netherlands by origin. He was born in Germany, in the family of the Vlaborny Prince Nassau. He was inherited from the uncle to the court of Karl V, Wilhelm Orange retained close connections with his relatives in Germany, married the German princess and always defiantly emphasized his position of the imperial prince at the first stage of the revolution, he sought to become an independent imperial prince, Kurfürst Brabant or Dutch. His hardness was combined at the same time with hatred of the anabaptists, and the tendency to the reformation was explained by the desire to extract the material benefits from the confiscation of church possessions and secure foreign allies in the face of French Huguenots, German Protestant Princes and the Government of England.

After the Spaniards of the Iconocochetic Movement of Wilhelm Orange fled with the group of his adherents to Germany and began to collect strength for the armed struggle against the Alba. Hence, collecting subsidies from rich merchants and consistory of the Netherlands cities, with the patronage and promotion of German Protestant princes and French Guenotov, he committed several trips to the Netherlands to fight the Spaniards. However, they were all unsuccessful. The reason for this was not only the lack of a commander of the prince, but also the nature of his policies and strategies. He focused on that period mainly on hired troops and assistance in foreign sovereign.

The victims defeat in the military campaign 1568-1569, the Prince of Orange in 1571 began secret diplomatic negotiations with France and England. The purpose of the negotiations was to enlist the military assistance of these states. In payment for "Help" of France, the province of Gennagau, Artoi and Flanders were promised; England - Holland and Zealand, and the prince himself had to get Brabant and some other provinces and become an imperial Kurfürst Brabant.

However, the quan-political situation, in which the activities of the Prince of Orange, the specific arrangement of the class forces developed in the future of the revolution and the Liberation War developed, made serious amendments to his plans. In the end, he became in fact the performer of the will of the major, mostly trading bourgeoisie of the Netherlands, who saw in Prince the Oranian "Silnogr of Man" in Prince. At the same time, Wilhelm Orange managed to provide her support in the medium of a wide variety of social layers: nobles, wealthy citizens and even from the side of some part of the masses.

Uprising 1572 and the birth of the bourgeois republic in the north

In 1571 Alba injected Alcabal. All the economic life of the country has suspended, the transactions were terminated, shops and manufactory were closed, many firms and banks were bankrupt. The atmosphere in the country was raised to an eyeling, especially in Holland and Zealand. The mass emigration of the population began.

In such an atmosphere, the Sea Goezov detachment, ran out of the English ports by the decree of Queen Elizabeth, giving way to the insistence of the Spanish government, a sudden fence on April 1, 1572 glazed by the port city of Brill, located on the island at the mouth of the Rhine. The specified episode in the conditions of a newly aggravated revolutionary situation served as a signal to a universal uprising in the northern provinces. On April 5, 1572, the urban masses of Flissingen rebelled and let the revolutionary gone detachments into the city. The surrounding peasantry actively supported the rebels and energetically destroyed small detachments of Spanish troops. Following this, rebellion occurred in the city of Fan, in which he was the main arsenal of the Spanish army, in Arnheida-not Enchotisen, and a few weeks all the north burned in the fire of the universal uprising. On the path of fighting the Spaniards, the part of the nobility of the northern provinces, which came close to the bourgeoisie and accepted Calvinism. These successes on land were supported by a number of strong blows along the Spanish fleet on the sea.

The national uprising in the north, led by a revolutionary Calvinist bourgeoisie, laid the foundation for the future bourgeois republic of the United Provinces. It is characteristic that neither Alba nor Prince Oranges could not appreciate the whole importance of this event. Prince, entirely immersed in the organization of the new invasion of foreign troops in the Netherlands, "... having learned about this folk movement, did not show any pleasure. On the contrary, he complained that these small successes would prevent the main event that he was preparing, "he wrote in his chronicle Hugo Grotia. Alba with disregard from the "Bunut of men" and arrogantly stated: "It doesn't matter." He believed that the main danger threatens by the Prince of Orange and its allies from among the German princes. All their core forces Alba moved to Gennagau, to the city of Mons, which was captured by the brother of Prince Orange Louis Nassau.

The Orange Prince only then turned serious attention to the uprising in the north, when his next military campaign for the south of the Netherlands suffered a full collapse. Meanwhile, in the northern provinces "Sea Goezi", formed from Plebs, artisans and radical bourgeoisie, new city militia became the gentlemen of the situation. They conducted active combat operations against the Spaniards on land and at sea, organized the defensive of cities and the methods of revolutionary terror spread with opponents of the revolution and with the Spanish agent. But the rich merchants of Holland and Zealand, who supported the political alliance with the nobility and the highest layer of medieval burghes, gradually began to make power to their hands. One of the steps in this direction was the vocation of Wilhelm Orange. He was awarded the highest executive and command of the troops and fleet. These public layers hoped that the prince "curbs" the masses and will ensure war against Spain, using for this ingenic allies. Already in 1572, French and English troops began to disembark in Holland and Zealand, which under the guise of "help" pursued mercenary, aggressive goals regarding the Netherlands.

Taking a sharing "Maria Goezi" in 1572. Engraving 1583

The period from 1573 to 1575 was severe for the rebels. I understood your mistake, the Alba collapsed by all the forces to "rebels". Everywhere, the masses have provided desperate and heroic resistance to the Spaniards. Seven months (from December 1572 to July 1573) The population of the pagialem led the heroic struggle with the Spanish troops precipitated the city, and only the threat of hungry death forced him to capitulate. No less heroism was shown by residents of the deposited Leiden (May - October 1574), the struggle of which ended with a brilliant victory. The rebeling provinces were widely and with a large effect used the method of flooding with water-busy territories engaged in the Spaniards, although it applied very much damage to peasants.

Uprising 1576 and "Gent Decience"

Finally, in Madrid, they realized that Alba's politics failed. In December 1573, he was shifted and left the Netherlands. Alba Rechekens, who changed the Duke stopped chargeing Alcabal and announced a very limited amnesty, but these were belated, half measures, and the situation in the country did not change for the better. The rebels of the provinces of the North selflessly transferred the most difficult tests. Spanish mercenaries did not receive a salary for years. Having met with the heroic resistance of the people and heavy material deprivations, they quickly turned into a creation of marauders and rapists.

In 1576, Spanish soldiers raised the rebellion. Fixing his commanders and leaving the "non-smart" north, they argued with all their weight south, leaving ruins and launching.

However, the revolutionary crisis was quickly called in the south. Urban magistrates and folk masses prepared to respond with hired robbers. The detachments of the peasants destroyed small groups of Spanish soldiers. On the streets of Brussels killed Spaniards and their accomplices. Even the nobility and clergy showed strong dissatisfaction with the policies of Spanish absolutism.

On September 4, 1576, the detachment of the city police of Brussels under the command of the Orange officer (supporter of Prince Orange) with the support of the population arrested members of the State Council. Folk masses rebelled. Spanish dominion was overthow in the southern provinces. Power passed to general states.

The uprising of September 4 received a response throughout the country. Everywhere, the masses were taken for the weapons and lowered the reactionary urban magistrates. The wide layers of the city plebs and the peasantry joined political activities. The revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie sought to master and lead this movement of the masses. At the same time, the reaction nobility, rich conservative burgherness and merchants wanted to lose their leadership positions. They tried to entrenched in urban magistrates and government apparatus. The noblemen captured team positions in the army by organized by the states, and vigorously gained their own detachments. In general, the political situation was extremely intricate and controversial.

In particular, the situation was especially complicated by the fact that the rebelled Spanish troops were traded by the citadels in a number of major cities: Antwerp, Ghent, Aloste, and others. The population of these cities was under the constant threat of violence and robberies from the rebeling Spanish mercenaries.

Under these conditions, Genta gathered in the same 1576 general states. In its composition, they have little reflected the changes that occurred in the country's political life. The southern provinces were presented here by the reaction nice, the Catholic clergy and the conservative layers of the Burgemi. The delegates of the northern provinces were in the minority, and their radical proposals were drowning in the flow of a barren discussion.

In the meantime, rebelled Spanish mercenaries of the Antwerp Citadel on November 4 mastered the city by exposing his robbery and defeat. 8 thousand citizens were killed and tortured, burned about 1000 buildings, the total damage was estimated at 24 million guildren.

These events forced the general states to hurry with solutions. We adopted on November 8, 1576. The text of the "Gentile appearance" did not contain, however, a clear program of action. True, the bloody legislation of the Duke Alby was declared canceled, the need to preserve the unity of the country and conducting a decisive fight against rebellious Spanish troops were declared (which were announced outside the law) until the country was released from the Spaniards. In the south, the domination of Catholic religion remained; For Holland and Zealand, the right to preserve Protestantism was recognized. But a number of essential questions remained unresolved. The power of the hated people of Philip II was not overthrown. The Spaniards and Privileges and Privileges, which gave the right to take some participation in local government, were not restored over the past 5-10 years. In particular, the liberty of the Gent was not restored, Carlla V after the Gent Uprising 1539-1540. Such issues such as the elimination of feudal stale relations were not even discussed by the General States, and the proposal on the secularization of church lands was rejected by the majority of deputies. All this showed that those who have developed the text of the "Gent's Decience" - the rich burghers, nobles, representatives of the urban patrician and Catholic Cleary, sought not to the further development of the revolution, but to its restriction.

Aggravation of class struggle in the south of the country

Contrary to the will of the people, general states told negotiations with sent by Philip II as a governor of the Netherlands Don Juan Austrian. In February 1577, Don Juan agreed to accept the terms of "Gent's peace" and signed the so-called eternal edict. But already on July 24, he openly broke with the General States and began to pull troops to Namur.

In response throughout the country, a new wave of folk uprisings rolled. In Brussels and some other cities of Flanders and Brabant, revolutionary "Committees of eighteen" were created, consisting of representatives of 9 shops "nations" ( The nation was called a group of workshops of related specialties.) Cities, 2 from each.

Members of the Eighteen Committees were bourgeois, lawyers, artisans, small shopkeepers, merchants. In fact, these committees were a revolutionary authorities. Their main task was to organize the defense of cities and their surroundings from the Spanish troops. War for the independence of the country was the most pressing vital task in the country, and the revolutionaryness of any party was determined how vigorously she was able to wage war with the Spaniards. But, starting with the organization of defense of cities, the "Committees of eighteen" began to invade all areas of urban life, control the actions of magistrates and put pressure on the State Council and general states in Brussels. In the summer and autumn of 1577, the "Committee of the eighteen" of Brussels officially demanded that the general states of removal from the state apparatus of the reactionary and Spanish agents from the state apparatus. He posted a special tax of the incomes of wealthy citizens of Brussels.

However, the masses were not sufficiently organized, and the revolutionary bourgeoisie was not able to nominate the head of the state-wide scale. This used the prince of Orange. In the autumn of 1577, he arrived in Brussels. Based on the vigorous activity of its supporters, he achieved the post of the Rouvard (governor) of Brabant.

The noble party, in the meantime, tried to gain a foothold in Flanders and make it the capital - the city of Gent - the center of its counter-revolutionary combinations. The rebellion of the Gent Polls on October 28, 1577, boldly noble reactionaries. Their leader - the Duke of Arschot and a number of other conspirators were arrested, and the owner of the city was the "Committee of Eighteen", which was influenced by Calvinist Consists.

Democratic military units were organized everywhere, revolutionary "Eighteen Committees", donations were gathered and weapons were made. Democratic elements seized power and in the Arrase - the center of the province of artoi, in which the influence of the reaction-noble elements prevailed. But everywhere the supporters of Wilhelm Orange, who tried to hold their own program of action, were penetrated with the Eighteen Committees.

The general states and their social layers supported were in confusion. Frightened by a powerful popularity of people's performances, they saw their salvation in its suppression by conspiracy with the forces of the feudal-catholic reaction, which caused an even greater indignation.

Democratic Movement in Ghent

The most acute socio-political struggle broke out in Ghent. The Eighteen Committee here has introduced freedom of religion, government troops were expelled from the city, and instead of them created military formations from democratic elements - plebs and artisans. The leadership of this army was in the hands of representatives of the revolutionary bourgeoisie. Church property were confiscated and soldered at a cheap price. The money taken from their sales went to the payment of troops and help the poor. In the fall of 1578, the pastes were executed by the Yarya reactionaries, the supporters of Spain - the former member of the "Blood Council" of Gessels and Yana De Vizh, the fault of which many people died.

Not wanting to support the policies of general states, the pastes refused to pay taxes and in order to combine the forces of the revolutionary-liberation movement, a union with Brussels and the cities of Flanders were concluded.

After the prisons confused by the nobility of Gennagau and Artoi, defeating the city democracy in Arras and Valencienne, raised the rebellion in the fall of 1578, the pastes in the Union with the Flemish peasantry took their active hostilities against them. In Flanders, the real peasant war was broken. The peasantry of Flanders did not receive land from the general states, nor liberation from feudal duties. At the same time, it was subjected to robbery and violence from the nobility and military mercenaries, designed to the Netherlands by the General States and Prince Orange.

For the struggle against the hired troops and the nobility, the peasants were created by self-defense squads. The peasants captured the noble lands, the castles and monasteries were lured. Noblemen and the Catholic clergy feared full of their death.

Large peasant uprisings also had a place in a number of northern provinces - Ovestyusissel, Friesland, Drenthe, Gelderne, Groningen.

Frightened by the growth of the mass revolutionary movement, general states sent troops that fiercely straightened with the rebel peasantry.

Arraskaya and Utrechtskaya Ulya 1579

On January 6, 1579, in Arras, representatives of the nobility of the provinces of Artoi and Gennegau entered into an alliance, the purpose of which was a general agreement with Philip II as a "legitimate master and sovereign." It was an open betrayal of the national interests of the country by the feudal-Catholic reaction.

In response to this, on January 23, 1579, Utrecht Sania was created, the core of which was the revolutionary northern provinces: Holland, Zealand, Utrecht and Friesland. They were joined by the city of Flanders and Brabant, headed by Gennet. The goal of Utrecht Ulya was the maintenance of a revolutionary war against Spain to a victorious end.

Catholic response, encouraged by her success in Gennagau and Artoi, Ospella. In major cities of Flanders and Brabant - Antwerp, Brussels, Brugge, the Spanish agent organized a number of reges, which, however, broke on the vigilance and resistance of the revolutionary movement forces.

Note Philip II.

On July 26, 1581, in the situation of the war with Spain and the acute political struggle within the country, the states of the provinces entered into Utrecht Ulya was officially lowered as the sovereignt of the Netherlands Philip II. Even before that, the Orange Prince defeated in August 1579 a democratic movement in the city of Ghent. In the north of the Special Law, democratic city corporations, the so-called militia or rifle guilds were deprived of the right to participate in the decision of urban and national affairs. In February 1582, NRInz Oransky and general states, contrary to the will of the people, called to the country as her ruler of the duke of Anjou. In January 1583, the Duke of Anjousky, relying on the fastened French troops, raised the reactionary insurgency, who had the goal of the joining of Flanders and Brabant to France. The rebellion was depressed by the armed people, but in combination with the overall setting, which established in the central provinces of the country, he had catastrophic consequences for further fate of the revolution.

Defeat the revolution in the south of the country and its reasons

The policy of supporters of Wilhelm Orange, suppressed a democratic movement, had their consequence the weakening of the struggle of the widespread masses for independence and led to the fact that the reinforced military ons of the Spaniards in 1580 was opposed in the south only the resistance of scattered urban centers - Ipra, Ghent, Brugge, Brussels, Antwerp. Revolutionary defenders of heroically defense cities could have only temporary successes. Saved from Spain as a governor of King Alexander Farnessee, he was mastered by one city after another, using his advantage into the forces and fragmentation of the actions of cities.

Now they affected how features economic Structure Flanders and Brabant and the associated originality of the class forces in these provinces.

Plebee craft masses of the cities of Flanders and Brabant, disorganized by the treason of their leaders, could not have a successful resistance to the Natiosk of the Spanish troops and the inner reaction.

The peasantry has previously lost the ability to fight, as the general states were sinking in the blood of his speeches, who had a goal of eliminating feudal ownership of land.

The most radical and enterprising elements of the urban bourgeoisie - the owners of manuff and the associated merchants - the masses emigrated to the north. In the cities of Flanders and Brabant, the conservative layers of the bourgeoisie, the highest layers of medieval burgherism related to their political and economic interests with Spain were becoming increasingly valued. As a result, the Spaniards captured the southern part of the Netherlands.

Republic of the United Provinces at the end of the XVI in

Otherwise, the situation was in the north. Here, Holland and Zealand, provinces with relatively more developed forms of capitalist relations, were particularly strengthened during the revolution, the Center for National Liberation Movement, which attracted the revolutionary elements of other provinces of the Netherlands. Religious persecution and Spanish tax system - Alcabala caused here the same outrage in the city and the village, which created a solid foundation for the joint struggle of the peasants and the city plebs. The revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie, grouped around Calvinist concepture, were stronger and more coercive than in the south, and constantly replenished due to emigration from the south. The bourgeoisie and the masses participated in the northern provinces in the joint struggle against the Spaniards, the Catholic Church and the most hated feudal institutions. The ideological banner of the movement was Calvinism, and this is the meaning of the words of Engels: "... Calvinism created a republic in Holland ..." ( F. Engels, the development of socialism from utopia to science, K.Marks and F. Engels, selected works, vol. II, M. 1955, p. 95.)

By providing the Southern Provinces after the uprising of 1576. The role of a military assfill, the Dutch bourgeoisie successfully used the temporary respite created by this. The conclusion of the Utrecht Unce of 1579. She laid the beginning of the political existence of a new independent bourgeois state - the United States of the Netherlands, called more often on the largest and most important province of Holland.

The state apparatus of the United Provinces gradually fully mastered the conservative merchant oligarchy. Inviting Prince Orange to the position of the staff, formal conservation up to 1581. The sovereignty of Philip II over the Netherlands, the removal of Calvinist Consists and Rifle Guilds from participating in the decision of state and urban affairs, supporting the foreign policy of oranges - all this was the matter of her hands.

In the summer of 1584, Wilhelm Orange was killed by the Philip II Baltazar Gerar. However, the socio-political basis on which Orangeness has developed and grew up, continued to exist. The general states of the United States were still engaged in enhanced search for a new foreign sovereign for the throne of the Netherlands. When the King of France, Heinrich III, rejected his proposal made him, tried the English orientation. In September 1585, the Graph Lester, an approximate Queen Elizabeth, entered the duties of the actual ruler of the United Provinces. The danger of this policy did not slow down to discovery. Following the instructions of the British government, the Graph Lester sought to turn the republic into the opposite appendage of England, and the English merchants to capture traditional external Dutch markets into their own hands. To this end, France and Germany were declared "allies" of Spain and trade with them was prohibited. War with Spain Graph Lester was unsuccessful, and then, by order of the British government, taught treacherous negotiations with the Spaniards and raised a military rebellion in order to capture the Netherlands.

The rebellion of the leather count was crushed, and he himself was forced to leave the republic. Only after that, the ruling merchant oligarchy ended in search of foreign sovereigns and moved in their relations with neighboring states to self-politics.

Truce 1609

In 1587-1609. The Republic in the Union with England and France continued to lead the war against Spain. The southern provinces were conquered by Spanish troops (in 1584, Brugge and Ghent were taken, in 1585 - Brussels and after the fierce resistance - Antwerp, to which the bourgeoisie of the Northern provinces, who seen the commercial competitor of Amsterdam, did not provide due assistance in it). In 1598, the Southern provinces turned into a Vassal in relation to Spain, the state under the administration of Ertzgezzog Albert and his wife, Philip II - Isabella daughter. The son of Wilhelm Orange - Moritz, elected in 1585 by the village of Holland and Zealand, was a talented commander and managed not only to free areas captured by the Spaniards, but also to attach a number of areas in Northern Brabant and Flanders to the Northern provinces. At the same time, the Fleet of the Republic, using the weakening of Spain on the sea, led the active military operations on its maritime communications and in colonies, laying this foundation of the future colonial empire of Holland.

A series of heavy military defeats, Spain was forced to conclude a truce for 12 years in 1609. Under the contract, Spain recognized the independence of the United Provinces and the right to trade them with Portuguese colonies in Ost-India. The mouth of the shelda was closed to trade, which did Antwerp on an inevitable economic ruin. The conclusion of the truce 1609 marked the victory of the revolution in the north of the Netherlands.

The nature of the Netherlands Revolution

In the article "Bourgeoisie and counter-revolution", Marx wrote: "The revolution of 1789 had its prototype (at least in Europe) only the revolution of 1648, and the revolution of 1648 is only the uprising of the Netherlands against Spain. Each of these revolutions left the century ahead compared to its prototypes not only in time, but also in its content. "( K. Marx and F. Engels, Bourgeoisie and Counter-revolution, K. Marx and F. Engels, Op., Vol. 6, p. 114.)

Marx, therefore, emphasizes that the English revolution of 1648, during which the bourgeoisie acted in the Union with the new nobility, left in the century ahead compared to his prototype, i.e. with the Netherlands Revolution.

The special nature of the Netherlands Revolution compared with revolutions of 1648 and 1789. It was determined by the fact that in the Netherlands the bourgeoisie was still a politically immature class. This is especially true of the southern provinces of the Netherlands. The class antagonism of the Netherlands bourgeoisie in relation to the nobility and absolutism was undeveloped. In the conditions of war, the social essence of events was blown in independence, as the national liberation struggle with Spain was put forward on the fore. Therefore, the Netherlands bourgeoisie to an even greater extent than English, especially in the person of its economically strongest part - a large trading bourgeoisie, supported the Union not with the peasantry and the city plebs, but with the nobility. Netherlands nobility as opposed to the English vocabulary "New Nobility" of the XVII century. It was in its main mass of feudal, and a similar union was conjugate with much greater concessions from the Netherlands bourgeoisie to feudal elements than in England XVII century.

2. The South Netherlands and Holland in the first half of the XVII century.

Spanish Netherlands in the first half of the XVII century.

The economy of the South Provinces of the Netherlands remaining under the rule of Spain, later named by the name of Belgium inhabitants in ancient times, was worried after the truce of 1609. A heavy crisis. The customs tariff with high export and low import duties was disliked in the local industry. Belgian merchants were deprived of trade rights with Spanish colonies. The manufactory of Flanders and Brabanta fell into decline, the city was launched, and the provinces in which the developed industry had previously existed, turned into agricultural areas. In ravaged cities, their monopoly dominance was secured, and the reactionary layers of burghers and the patrician took the dominant position in urban magistrates.

The decline came and agriculture of the Spanish Netherlands. A brutal system of recovery of arrears from the peasants was established. Feudals retained the property to the ground.

Economic Development of Holland

Holland as a result of a revolutionary struggle against foreign domination not only dropped off the Spanish Igo, but also became the first bourgeois republic, while feudalism was still dominated in all other European countries. True, the incompleteness of the Netherlands revolution also affected in Holland. And in the field of economy, and in the state device, the transformation was carried out a compromise. Subsequently, this led to the decline of Holland, but at first she quickly went forward along the path of progress. Manufactory was growing rapidly. Wrestototkish Leiden Manufactory at the beginning of the XVII century. Supplied 70-120 thousand pieces of fabrics per year. In Rotterdam and a number of other cities, the production of plush, silk, linen fabrics and other products developed. At the shipyards of Amsterdam and Zagandam, all types of ships were built not only for the needs of the republic itself, but also for foreign countries. In the fishing fishery, up to 2,000 ships was employed, and the annual catch was estimated at 22 million flora.

But the main wealth has been focused on foreign trade and shipping. In the middle of the XVII century. The Fleet of the United Provinces was almost twice the fleet of England and France, taken together, and the total trade turnover reached 75-100 million florins per year. A major value for the Netherlands in the XVII century. There was her trade with Russia. So, in 1624, Russian-Dutch trade transactions were estimated at 2 million florines. The Spanish agent wrote about this in a secret note: "It is necessary to take into account that the biggest trading that the Dutch is now and led many years and which they consider the most secured ... this is trading with the north, and mostly with Muscovy" .

The largest role in the republic was played by the Ost-India Trading Company, which refrains of which were Amsterdam merchants. It was a state in the state, which turned the most controls of the Dutch Republic to their branches.

Amsterdam became the European Trade and Credit Center. Here, the first insurance companies in Holland arose, and in 1609, the bank, which was engaged in deposit (receiving deposits) and wide scale credit operations.

This is the domination of trading bourgeoisie in economic Life The republic is explained by the fact that she was still experiencing a manufactory period of capitalism, when "... Trade hegemony provides an industrial predominance." ( K. Marx, Capital, t. I, p. 757.)

Political device of the United Provinces

Trading and large industrial bourgeoisie associated with foreign trade (the leading place in which Holland has occupied with its main center - Amsterdam), seized the leading position in the political life of the republic. The State Device of Holland was based on the provisions of Utrecht Uly. The main legislation, the solution of national issues and taxation was the prerogative of general states. Each of the 7 provinces used in them, regardless of the number of deputies, in one voice. The deputies were obliged to vote strictly in accordance with the instructions of their voters (imperative mandate), and each decision was to be taken unanimously. But this liberal, at first glance, the device was complemented by a very effective and energetic executive authority represented by the staff of the staff, who also provided a far-reaching right of arbitration in the event that the general states did not come to a consistent decision.

The State Council conducted mainly military issues. It was distributed in it depending on the share of the total amount of taxes, which every province saw, as a result of what Holland and Zealand had 5 places from 12.

Each province in domestic affairs has enjoyed broad autonomous rights. Provincial States, Magistrates of Cities and Chatganizers were local governments. The social composition of the provincial states and the form of their work was different. In Holland, from 19 states 18 were representatives of large bourgeoisie and only 1 deputy represented the nobility. An active election right in this province of 1 million 200 thousand population was used only by several thousand people. In the states of "Free Friesland", together with the noble deputies, representatives of the peasants and cities were meeting. All questions here were solved by a simple majority of votes. In the backward Eastern provinces - Helderne and Overalessel in the States prevailed the nobility.

Class struggle in the first half of the XVII century.

The internal policy dominated in the country of large bourgeoisie was frankly anti-democratic. The masses were politically affected. The main burden of huge state and military expenditures was peaked on them. The peasant land, the production and export of agricultural products, feudal remnants in the village to a certain extent remained high taxes. Only the confiscation and sale of land of the nobles and priests who switched to the side of the Spaniards were carried out. The remaining church lands were transferred to Calvinist communities. In conditions of provinces such as Holland, Friesland, where a significant part of the peasantry was encircled free, these events led to almost complete elimination of the feudal dependence of the peasants. But often, the peasant, together with liberation, "released" and from the Earth, which passed to the hands of representatives of the bourgeoisie. In the backward agrarian provinces - Gelderne, Overaleissell and in the territory of the Northern Brabant-noblemen, in their hands, ownership of land and partly - their privileges, and the feudal dependence of the peasants was preserved until the end of the XVIII century.

The ruling layers of a large, mainly trading, bourgeoisie did not pay sufficient attention to the needs of national manufactory. They did not introduce defensive customs tariffs for their industry and willingly imported cheaper products of foreign origin to Holland. Therefore, national manuff production in the republic has developed in very unfavorable conditions.

The position of the working people of the masses of Holland, which was the "exemplary capitalist country of the XVII century", ( K. Marx, Capital, t. I, p. 755.) It was very hard. The duration of the working day was 12-16 hours at low wages and extremely high prices for essentials. The workers of the masses of Holland already in 1648 "more suffered from excessive labor, were poorer and suffered grind more cruel than the masses of the rest of Europe." ( K. Marx, Capital, t. I, p. 757.)

In the young bourgeois republic was a fierce class struggle. From time to time, peasant unrest broke out. In the first half of the XVII century. A number of independent speeches of the united in the guild of small artisans and hired workers who demanded the improvement of working conditions. Urban masses were involved in the struggle of political parties. A sharp exacerbation this struggle reached at Morice Orange, after the conclusion of the truce 1609.

Moritz Oransky - Netherlands and Zealand village from 1585 to 1625, and who lived at the expense of the war nobility, which supported the pategalter's aspirations to strengthen personal power, wanted the renewal of the war and put forward the requirement to strengthen the central authorities, the weakening of separatism and a closer provincial association. Therefore, the party of the staff is called "unitarists" (uniforms).

The ruling trading bourgeoisie of Holland, interested in the existence of the post of the staff of the staff to ensure the centralized leadership of military operations and the strong executive office, still did not want to provide him with the dictatorial authority he was harassed. She contrasted the "unitarism" traditional autonomy of provinces, under the guise of which freedom of limitless enrichment was defended, the political arbitrariness of the Dutch major bourgeoisie and the actual hegemony of Holland over the rest of the provinces. The name of this party is "provincialists".

This struggle was reflected in the field of ideology. Rejecting Calvinist Consists to participate in the decision of public affairs, the ruling oligarchy contrasted to the militant irreconcilable calvinism, whose ideologue was a Homar, a policies of the trimming, which was defended by the army. The struggle of "gomarists" and "Arminian", reflecting the struggle of the national industrial and petty bourgeoisie against the ruling merchant oligarchy, which in the midst of the war traded with Spain, proceeded in very sharp forms. Gomarists managed to attract the sympathy of urban Maccs, who suffered from mercenary politics and arbitrariness of the merchant oligarchy.

Moritz Orange and his supporters took advantage of this struggle in their own interests. In order to strengthen its position in the fight against the "provincialists", the staff of the gumarists first resorted to the demagogic policy of "protection". When that part of the ruling trading bourgeoisie, which was irreconcilable against Morita Orange, raised an open uprising, Moritz Oransky easily suppressed him, as the staff of the villagers supported both the masses and chomarists and moderate circles of the dominant trade bourgeoisie. Heading the uprising of the Great Pennsionary Province of Holland Oledenbarnweld was captured, accused of state treason and executed on May 13, 1619.

The defeat of the Aldznbarnweld's uprising eliminated the most aggressive faction of the ruling merchant oligarchy and gave a temporary advantage of the "Unitarists" party. However, this did not lead to any significant change in the political regime in the United Provinces and the alignment of class forces.

Renewing hostilities. Westphalian world

In 1621, the term of the truce with Spain was completed and military actions resumed. Military operations associated with the general events of the thirty-year war went with varying success. The dominant merchant merchant bourgeoisie was leaning towards the world with Spain, prevented Antwerp the troops of the republic, fearing that he would be included in the Union of the United Provinces and would become a dangerous competitor of Amsterdam. Moreover, the Dutch merchants even supplied Spaniards deposited in Antwerp, weapons and food, of course, for a good fee.

Together with the end of the thirty-year-old war, the war was completed and the war of the United Provinces with Spain. In 1648, the independence of the United Provinces was recognized and their formal relationship with the Empire was eliminated. A number of cities and territories of Brabanta, Flanders and Limburg, who, however, remained on the situation of powerless and cruelly exploited "Hacery Lands", was departed to the republic. The mouth of the shelf remained closed to trade, and Antwerp finally launched.

3. Culture of the Renaissance in the Netherlands

Humanism XVI century.

Starting from the 20th century, the Netherlands become one of the main foci of European culture. The formation of a new socio-economic structure, the wreck of religious dogmatics of the Middle Ages and the origin of the new, secular in its nature of the worldview - all these processes were essentially similar to the phenomena that happened in Italy, but in the Netherlands they took place at the beginning of less clear forms. The new social entry, which emerged in rich, economically developed cities, was formed yet within the framework of the feudal burgundy state, and this arise his imprint on the overall nature of the Netherlands culture.

The inclusion of the Netherlands into the Habsburg Empire meant the end of the relative closuit of the Netherlands culture. Correct cultural ties of the Netherlands with Germany, Spain and - which is especially important - with Italy. On the other hand, the Spanish Igo generated the growing sense of a national protest, which was the development of the Netherlands culture of the XVI century.

In the XVI century, an open struggle for church reform begins in the Netherlands. Bourgeoisie, especially in the northern provinces, was determined in favor of Calvinism. Rising humanistic literature in the XVI century. Partly is associated with the reformation, partly represents an independent phenomenon, which does not coincide with religious movement and even hostile to him.

Humanistic literature was imbued with the secular cheerful spirit of the Renaissance (Coorgert, etc.). The most authoritative figure of the humanistic movement in the north of Europe at the beginning of the XVI century was the native of the Netherlands Erasmus Rotterdam, a prominent figure of German and international humanism.

Humanistic education applied mainly through universities and scientific societies. One of the centers of humanism became founded in 1575. Leiden University. The Academy arose in Amsterdam, who had its task to popularize the monuments of the ancient world in his native language. A huge role in this cultural approach was played by typography. The Netherlands was famous for their printing houses; The most famous of them was very large for those times the printing house in Antwerp, which consisted of 160 workers.

Especially radical inquiry acquired the literature of revolutionary years. Its the largest representative was one of the active figures of the Philip Marniks Van Sint Aldehonde (1539-1598), which in his song "Willelmus", which became a combat anthem of the Netherlands Revolution, glorifies an uprising against the Spanish yoke. The satirical essay of the Marnica "Flaws of the Holy Roman Church" is a bright pamphlet directed against Catholicism. By the same period include full combat pathos revolutionary songs of the goose.

Rhetorical societies

In the cultural life of the Netherlands, the so-called rhetorical societies played a special and very significant role. They originated in the XIV-XV centuries. And originally united around themselves mainly university intelligentsia and prosperous layers of burgherness. Rhetorical societies were engaged in the device of local festivals and competitions in eloquence, the preparation of solemn speeches and poems, as well as the dramatization of Catholic mysteries.

In the XVI century Both the circle of activity and the social composition of rhetorical societies have changed significantly. They arose everywhere, even in large villages, and members of them were hundreds and thousands of simple craftsmen and peasants. They expressed and wrote "rhetoric" on local adverbs, understandable to the simple people. Therefore, the influence of rhetorical societies in the folk masses was very significant. In the daily life of rhetorical societies, we became ordinary disputes on religious and political topics, drawing on the angright of the day, the preparation of leaflets and pamphlets, sometimes sharply anti-carv and anti-government content. Periodically convened the congresses of rhetorical societies on the provinces, which attracted a huge audience at that time.

Without limited to this, the most revolutionary participants in rhetorical societies took active participation in class clashes of the pre-revolutionary period. In the northern provinces, many members of Amsterdam's rhetorical societies, Leiden and other cities joined the revolutionary anabaptism and actively participated in the peasant-Plebean uprisings of 1534-1536, which were in direct connection with the Münster Commune. Some leaders of the Munster Commune, in particular John Bokelson (Leidensky), came out of their environments.

The congress of Flanders's rhetorical societies in the summer of 1539 in Ghent served as a prologue to a significant in the history of the Netherlands to the Gent's uprising 1539-1540, which received a powerful response throughout Flanders.

Many of the selfless fighters against the Spanish yoke and the feudal-Catholic reaction came out of rhetorical societies during the revolution and war for independence, and where the revolution won, rhetorical societies became centers in which the National Dutch and literature was formed.

Netherlands painting XVI century.

In the Dutch art of the first half of the XVI century. There was a complete liberation process from the principles of medieval art. Among the Netherlands artists of this time, which preserved communication with the national realistic tradition, Lucas Van Leiden (Luke Leidensky, 1494-1533), glorified as a painter and even more as an engraving (its engraving depicting the episodes of popular life).

In the years, directly preceding revolutions, the Netherlands painting is experiencing a new rise. Appeal to the real life of the people - such is the main feature of the art of the largest masters of this time - Peter Arsena (1508 -1575) and his student of Joachim Baker (about 1533-1573).

Peter Bruegel Elder

Top of the Netherlands Art of the XVI century. It is the work of Peter Bruegel senior, nicknamed "Menietic" (born between 1525 and 1530, died in 1569). At the beginning of his creative activity, Bruegel created a number of satirical works with elements of acute social criticism (the "Battle of Chest and Piggy-Pieces" engravings, the "Pyrcy", the feast of fatty "). The paintings on the themes of the Netherlands Folklore are noted deep originality, illustrating folk proverbs, as well as works of a fantastic nature. The main theme of his art of mature pore is the image of the life of the people. In the compositions "Harvesting" and "Return of the Stade", he first gives bright pictures of peasant labor; The scenes of recreation and fun residents of the Netherlands village in the paintings "Peasant Wedding" and "Peasant Dance" are not less visible brightness. These works written with a sense of love for ordinary people are deprived of any idealization. In strong, strong figures of the peasants, the artist emphasizes coarse masculinity; Wonderful loyalty passes Bruegel features of peasant life.

Acute social contradictions of the epoch, the gloomy years of Spanish terror found their expression in some tragic in the concentration of the later works of Bruegel. His "beating of babies" is a real scene of the disgrace of the Spanish troops, the residents of the Netherlands village; The painting "Painting", depicting similar to hardware of non-abnormal beggars, is imbued with a sharp feeling of protest against the cruelty of life; The famous composition "Blind" develops into a generalized image of the tragic fate of mankind. Bruegel painting is distinguished by a special acuity of realistic vision, which is sometimes reaching the grotesque, clearly solid drawing, bright colorful silhouettes.

Along with the genre painting raised by Bruegel on an unprecedented height, especially his merit in the history of landscape painting. The first in the Netherlands he moved from semi-suck landscapes to the image of real motives of nature, to the transfer of the mood of various times of the year ("Winter", "cloudy day", etc.). Bruegel is a great poet of nature. Many creative achievements of this brilliant artist became an initial point for realistic art of the XVII century.

Music

As for other types of art, the greatest fame in the XV-XVI centuries. The Netherlands Music School has conspited to themselves, which occupied essentially a dominant situation in other European countries. Netherlands composers wrote mainly compositions for the choir, usually without instrumental support; Independent instrumental music was cultivated to a much lesser extent. The contribution of the Netherlands Masters in the history of music was the most complete and perfect development of the polyphony - the art of choral polyphony.

4. Culture of Flanders in the first half of the XVII century.

The division of the Netherlands at the end of the Netherlands revolution led to the formation of two independent national art schools - Flemish and Dutch.

Defeat the revolution and the preservation of the Spanish negle on the territory of Flanders ( Under Ferlandia, here all the southern provinces of the Netherlands remaining under the authority of Spain are meant.) In many respects, they have adversely affected the cultural development of the country in the XVII century. Catholic response increased dramatically; Flanders more than any other European country was flooded with Jesuits. However, the public consciousness generated by the Netherlant revolution turned out to be too significant so that the reaction forces can drown out in the first decades of restoration of the Spanish yoke and turn the consciousness of the wide layers of the Flemish society to the Middle Ages. Absolutish-cleric circles in Flanders were powerless to destroy the conquest of the Netherlands culture of the preceding centuries, the eradication of the cheerful freedom-loving spirit of the people.

Progressive public trends were manifested in Flanders not open, but in indirect form - almost entirely in the field of art and primarily in Flemish painting survived in the first half of the XVII century. Wonderful flourishing. The bright, full-blooded perception of life, the natural sense of nature, is rude, but the healthy feeling of the beauty of the world, the general mood of joy and pleasure life becomes the most characteristic qualities of Flemish art.

Architecture

In the monuments of Flemish architecture, dependence on the ideology of the dominant class is expressed more dramatically. The victory of Catholicism had its result extensive church construction. In the magnificent church facilities, all the means of synthesizing architecture, sculptures, painting and decorative art are used to hit, blind, shake the viewer, to make him imbued with a religious feeling. The samples of this kind of buildings are the Church of Begini in Brussels and the Jesuit Church in Luvan, built by the largest Flemish architect Lucas Feiderb (1617-1697).

Flemish school in painting. Rubens

The realistic foundations of Flemish art with extraordinary brightness manifested themselves in painting. Its world importance is closely related to the activities of Peter Paul Rubens, which, thanks to its huge artistic gift and latitude of the creative range, became the largest master of the Flemish art of the era of his heyday.

Rubens was born in 1577 in the family of a lawyer and received a wonderful humanistic education. At the age of 23, after passing training from Flemish painters, he went to Italy. In 1608, Rubens returns to Flanders. He performs complex diplomatic instructions of the Spanish governor of Infanta Isabella, making it a trip to France, Spain, England. The famous artist attracts many students to him. Orders come in such an abundance that Rubens cannot be able to cope with their implementation, and his workshop turns into a kind of artistic manufactory, where numerous students work on the sketches of the Master (about 3 thousand canvases came out of the walls of the Rubensovskaya workshop).

All his artistic pathos Rubens put into the image of the human body, which is characterized by his extraordinary power and sensual charm. The hot flavor of the works of Rubens is built on a comparison of the tones of a naked body with bright stains of robes and noble, discovered by a tonality background. Rubens is not alien to exaggeration, but it takes over the huge life force of his images, alive, beating through the edge temperament.

The first major works created by Rubens shortly after arrival from Italy, - the grand canvases in the Antwerp Cathedral "The Exaltation of the Cross" and "Removing from the Cross" - represent people of titanic power, in whose appearance there is nothing to do with religious asceticism. These qualities receive even more vivid expression in the following years, especially in the works on the themes of antique mythology, where the content itself favored the manifestation of the most attractive features of Flemish art - the bright cheerfulness of the images, their huge full-time, the feeling of the inseparable fusion of man and nature. Such are the "abduction of Dioskours of the Daughters of Levkippa", "Return of Diana with Hunting", "Perseus, Freeding Andromeda."

Rubens created widespread in the XVII-XVIII centuries. A peculiar type of historical picture that combines the image of a real event with an allegorical glorification of the hero. Rubens is also one of the creators of the parade portrait characteristic of the era; In his portrait work, solemn representativeness does not obscure, however, the vital freshness of the images ("Portrait of Mary Medici", "Equestrian Portrait of Ferdinand Austrian").

Rubens and other genres showed an equally original master. His "hunting" is distinguished by extraordinary drama - large canvases depicting stressful fighting hunters with angry beasts ("Hunt for Lviv" and "Hunt for Crocodile and Hippopotam"). Finally, Rubens to the art of the landscape. Rubens landscapes are distinguished by breadth of coverage and dynamic transmission of nature; High horizon increases their spatial scope; As if in motion, the mountain ranges open in front of the viewer, stormy streams, roads, leaving the distance, obese herds, graceing on flowering meadows. The common idea and each detail in the landscapes give rise to the feeling of inexhaustible fertility, the eternal life-minded power of the Earth ("Landscape with Phulele and Bawvya", "Rocks of stones" and others).

The last decade in the life of Rubens - the 30s of the XVII century. - Represents a special stage in his work. It leaves from court and diplomatic activities, less attention pays for registered work and writes mainly for himself. The works of this period are characterized by a special depth of perception of life ("Virsavia", "Mercury and Argus"). In the portraits of Rubens now, not so much paramedically, as an intimate interpretation of images (cycle of portraits of the second wife of the artist Elena Furman); The landscape also increases the features of lyrical perception and, at the same time, the more specific transmission of the motives of nature ("night landscape" and "Landscape with the castle of the walls"). IN last years Rubens for the first time appeals to the household genre, to the image of the life of the Flemish peasantry. His "Kermesa" (rural holiday) and the "peasant dance" - the brightest embodiment of the stormy cheerfulness and inexhaustible vitality of the Flemish people.

Rubens died in 1640, while still in full bloom of creative forces.

Pupils Rubens

The largest disciples of Rubens, also reached pan-European fame, Antonis Van Daeke (1599-1641) became famous primarily as a portraitist. To a lesser extent to him than Rubens, the spontaneous full-blooded perception of nature is inherent; It is touched by refined images, to a more acute psychological outcome of the model, an example of which the "family portrait" and especially the famous "self-portraight" can be.

In the 20s, Van Daeque traveled to Italy. Portraits created by him at this time are distinguished by the special solemnity of the idea, underlined the magnitude, the magnification of accessories. Returning to his homeland, the artist appeals to the living sources of Flemish art, enriched with the experience of his Italian travel. The end of the 20s - the beginning of the 30s - the heyday of the art of Wang-Diek (portraits of Snayers, Brouz and Sneiders artists). Its best female portrait of this time is the portrait of a secular beauty of Mary Louise de Tassis - attracts special internal content, the mastership of the embodiment of character.

In 1632, Van Daeke at the invitation of the English king Charles I Stewart moves to England and occupies a court of court painter. He was mowed with honors, he was assigned a noble title. But the separation from the native roots, the atmosphere itself of the English yard on the eve of the revolution and the collapse of absolutism - all this was destructively responded on the work of Wang Diek. His best works of the English period - "Portrait of Charles I" and "Portrait of the artist's wife" - marked even high artistic merits. But gradually in its portraits, the features of idealization are increasingly manifested, and in the very painting itself, purely external virtuosity is performed.

Another, more democratic line in Flemish art represents Jordan Jacob (1593-1678). He was connected with Rubens as an employee when performing some orders and remained many of them to Rubens in the formation of his artistic style. At Jordan there is no Rubensov's height of artistic generalization, his images are easier, elementary, the nature often appears in his whole rudeness. On the other hand, he more directly expresses the spontaneous folk origin. He will go to the full of the naked truth in the peasant types ("mourning Christ", "worship of the Magi"). With a special desire, he repeats the composition on the story of the basci Ezopa "Satir visiting the peasant". Here, the images of the peasants shown in their everyday household surroundings are distinguished by genuine monumentality. Jordan's interest in real life found his expression in his numerous paintings on the topics of Flemish People's Festival ("Holiday of the Bobov King", "big whistling, and small friends", etc.). These canvas are a real apotheosis of irreparably fun, testimony of the powerful life forces of the people.

In the artistic environment of Rubens, the principles of Flemish Still Life, the largest representative of which was Frans Sneiders (1579-1657). Flemish still life amazes with its scope; These are usually monumental canvases intended for decorating the palace hall and monastic meadowers. Sniders's favorite motives are meat or fish shops, huge tables, digested by hearts, fruits. The abundance of Snederes's still lifes is expressed by the same sense of inexhaustible fertility of the Earth, the joy of being, which is characteristic of Rubens and Jordan's paintings.

Peasant genre

Outside the orbit of Rubens developed essentially only one direction in painting, connected mainly with the image of the life of peasants and close in nature to the Dutch peasant genre. The largest representative of this destination was Adrian Browver (1606-1638), who lived several years in Holland, where he was largely formed as an artist.

The world of Brouvera is dark rustic huts filled with tobacco smoke clubs with dressed in rags by the ugly figures of peasants, brutal fights during drinking or behind the game in the bone, distorted by the crude patients who operate the wandering charlatan. Browver is a typewriter, a master of acute characteristics, a wonderful colorist. His appeal to the low-lying sides of reality, the grotesque character of his images sharply contrast with the heroically raised images of the peasants and the general major character of genre paintings of Rubens and Jordan. This contrast is reflected in the real contradictions of the public life of Flanders.

The creativity of another famous representative of the Flemish genre painting - David Tenirs (1610-1690) is imbued with a softer mood. The scenes of the peasant life of the Tenirst gives an idyllic character. His ordinary motive is an image of chinno funny peasants. The process of gradual grinding of images, the loss of large life content is clearly manifested in the art of Yana Siterrehts (1627-1703), the latter of large genres of this direction, whose creativity is already applicable by the years of economic and artistic decline of Flanders.

5. Dutch culture XVII century.

Political ideas

The victory of the bourgeois revolution and the development of capitalism at the early stage - such was the base for the heyday of Dutch culture in the XVII century. A small country, which consisted of about 2 million inhabitants, not only reached great economic power, but also ahead of other states in the path of cultural progress. Exemption from feudal estate restrictions and Spanish inquisition created favorable conditions for the development of advanced public thought. The Republic of the United Provinces has become a refuge to the reaction of advanced thinkers from other countries pursued by the reaction. It was famous with his printing houses, she was a place of publication of political literature, secretly spread throughout Europe.

The new forms of the State Device in the Bourgeois Republic found their rationale in the political theory of folk sovereignty. One of the main political publicists of the revolutionary era was Marniks. At first, it was a question, actually, not about the abolition of the monarchy, but about the supreme law of the people to dispose of the throne and eliminate the king, if he turned into Tirana. These ideas were with sufficient clarity expressed in the famous act about the deployment of Philip II: "It is not a people created for the sovereign, and the sovereign for the people, because without the people there would be no sovereign. The sovereign exists in order to rule his subjects under the law and justice ... If he comes with them wrong, but as with slaves, thereby ceases to be a sovereign and becomes a tyrant, and subjects ... have the right to legitimate His representatives on the general states to leave him. " From this point of view, Marniks justifies the Netherlands Revolution.

The ideas of folk sovereignty received the most vivid and systematic expression from Sindica of the city of Emden, the former rector of the Gerboroon University - Johanna Altuzia (1557-1638). His "Books About Policy" are a cast with a political device that has established in the seven United Provinces. The composition of Altusion from the beginning to the end is imbued with the spirit of the religion of Calvin, who belonged to the famous words: "It is better to spit in the face of a godless king than to obey his velary." Johann Altusius argued that the sum of the supreme rights can belong only to the people. Under the people of Dutch authors of the political theories of the XVI - the first half of the XVII century. Only a loyal layer, part of the framework of an organized representative office, understand. But Altusius, being a leader of the Peasant Friesland, regrets that the peasantry remains outside of political life and has no independent representation in most countries. The origin of the state of Altusius displays from the "public contract" - a political fiction characteristic of the theorists of the rising bourgeois democracy, which takes on the Axiom that society consists of independent commodity producers, legal entities entering into contractual relations. Long before Rousseau Altusius acknowledged the supreme power (sovereignty) the right belonging to the people as a whole, inseparable and inalienable. As a zealous Calvist, he requires the unity of religion, mandatory recognition of state religion.

In the provinces liberated from the Spanish nest, religious persecution broke out; The fanaticism of believers strongly inflated Protestant theologian. The struggle was conducted due to the dogmas of the new church, but the advocates of free thought were most affected. By the way, the great French thinker Descartes, who was looking for refuge in his free Holland.

But religious conflicts were only an external expression of the struggle of the parties of "Unitarists" and "Nrownintists". Oledenbarnweld and Grotia (Gogo de Groot) were closer to the ideal of the bourgeois republic, standing at the head of the "provincialists". Being supporters of the humanistic tradition, they performed in defense of violence.

At the beginning of the XVII century. The political experience of the United Provinces had enormous importance for the whole world. Gogo Greece (1583-1645), as the opponent of the Orange House, was supposed to escape from native country. His main essay "On the right of war and the world" (1625) carries a huge imprint of the advanced ideas of the Netherlands Revolution. The main idea of \u200b\u200bhis book is that the unspacial struggle of self-interest interests is not an unconditional law of international relations and that between countries, as well as in relations between individuals within the state, a normal relationship arising from the "Natural Law" can be established. Unlike Italian theorists, Machiavelli and Guichchardini - Gugo Greece finds not only selfishness in nature, but also the "striving for a hostel."

Literature

The first half of the XVII century is the time of the overall rise of Dutch culture with the undisputed predominance of democratic trends in it, the time of accumulation of forces and the preparation of the upcoming heyday. At this democratic basis, the highest achievements of Dutch social thought and art arose.

Dutch literature XVII century. It was not put forward by names comparable to the scale of diving with the largest representatives of the literature of other European countries, but the Dutch poets were ahead of their contemporaries progressiveness of their political program, the open proclamation of the ideals of freedom and national independence.

The ideological focus of the Dutch literature XVII century. Closely related to the revolution and national liberation struggle against Spain. It should be especially noted that the Dutch playwrights often appealed to the plots of the recent heroic past of their country.

The first example of the heroic tragedy on the topic of national history is the play of the poet and playwright Peter Corfta (1581-1647) "Gerard Woven Welsen", where the author made an attempt to create an image of a national hero, a fighter against the feudal negle. This line continues Iost Van Vondel (1587-1679), the largest Dutch poet and playwright, the author of the heroic tragedies on the biblical plots (Samson, David), epic poems, lyrical poems. The main topic of Vondales is the national liberation struggle of the Netherlands, which he draws it allegorically, addressing the biblical plots (Drama "Easter"), then in the episodes of the history of their homeland (the tragedy "Geysbrecht Van Amstel"). In the tragedy "Lucifer" in allegorical images, the struggle of the Netherlands with Spain is chased.

Another line of Dutch literature is associated with the immediate image of real reality. In the drama, she was laid on their comedies on the themes of the Burgers of Peter Graft and Herbrand Bradero (1580-1618). Jacob Kate (1577-1660) in the poem "Marriage" and in didactic stories acts as an apologist of orthodox calvinism and bourgeois morality. In his works with the greatest visibility, limited sides of the worldview of the Dutch Burgerty are expressed. As in other countries, a Plutovskaya novel was one of the popular literary genres in Holland; The main representative of this genre was Nicholas Gainzius.

Architecture

While in absolutist-Catholic states, the focus was focused on lush church and palace structures, in Protestant and bourgeois Holland, mostly civil buildings - Town Hall, trading structures, etc. The appearance of these usually brick buildings decorated with architectural details of the White Stone , inherent modesty and simplicity. None in any other country, burgher residential buildings did not differ in such a rational and economical layout, such as comfort, as in Holland, where every block of land was appreciated and where the specific forms of burgher houses were long. Only starting from the middle of the XVII century. In the Dutch architecture began turning to classicism.

As for the sculpture, the scope of its distribution in Holland was very limited - Calvinism did not allow religious images in churches; In Bourgeois Holland, there were also large palace complexes, for the decoration of which the sculpture could be needed.

Painting

The highest achievements of Dutch art are associated almost entirely with painting. Neither in any of the European countries, painting did not know such a quick lift and such widespread. Throughout the first half a century, many painters appear in Holland, and truly outstanding masters appear dozens. The profession of painter becomes one of the most common; Pictures are acquired not only rich patrons, but also small burghers, artisans, even the wealthy peasants. The abundance of paintings led to their extreme low cost; They traded everywhere - at special auctions, through trading intermediaries, even in rural fairs. If in other countries the artist depended on the court and church orders or enjoyed the patronage of noble patrons, the Dutch painter worked for the market, being essentially the same seller of his product as a merchant or artisan. Market demand determined the dependence of the artist from the bourgeois society: those from the Dutch painters who had the courage to perform in advance to dominant tastes were doomed to oblivion and poverty.

The bourgeois-republican stroke of Holland and Calvinist reform identified some features of Dutch painting. Unlike other national art schools, Holland did not know court art; The rare was in Holland and church orders. The Calvinist Church did not interfere in the questions of art, a religious topic did not occupy a large place in the Dutch art, and - which is even more important - a Dutch artist, not bound by church dogmatics, was relatively free in the interpretation of religious plots.

Dutch painting XVII century. Represents an important stage in the development of world art. The huge majority of Dutch painters depart from idealized images and drawn directly to life itself, to nature. A real person in his life environment is such a content of their art. The worldview of the Dutch painter perfectly report the words of the greatest painters of the Holland Rembrandt: "Sky, earth, the sea, animals, good and evil people - everything serves for our exercise. Plains, hills, streams and trees give enough work to the artist. Cities, markets, churches and thousands of natural wealth appeal to us and say: go, thirsty knowledge, contemplate us and reproduce us. In the Fatherland, you will open so much to heart, pleasant and worthy, which, since you taste, you will find life too short for the correct incarnation of all this. "

In general, the history of the Dutch painting of the XVII century. It is divided into three main stages: the formation period is up to 1640; period of heyday-1640-1670; After 1670, quickly increasing decline.

France Gals.

The leading master of the period of formation of Dutch art was a wonderful portrait of France Gals (about 1580-1666). On the shelves of Gals are all layers of a Dutch society - from statesmen to ordinary people from the people who the artist depicted with a special interest and sympathy. In his works, Gals discarded the conditional significance of the posture and other canons of a portrait genre that served as an artificial elevation of the model. The movements of his heroes are natural and relaxed, they gesticulate, smile, laugh. The best works of Hals include the "Portrait of Hatheizen", depicting a noble Chaales Patricia in a relaxed pose; Line "Gypsy" - an image of fringe after the edge of cheerfulness; "Mallet Babbe" - almost grotesque in sharpness characteristics portrait of the old woman, the sage of the Harchevni, which is called "Chairsmaya Witch"; The artist depicted it with owls on his shoulder and with a huge mug of beer in his hand.

France Gals was the largest representative of the specifically Dutch genre - a group portrait that originated in the XVI century., But who had reached a heyday in the next century. There were established types of group portraits of members of the Rifle Corporations (i.e. burgher militia), regents (trustees) of charitable institutions, shops stars, doctors, scientists. The corporate spirit of the bourgeois republic, still living memories of the heroic struggle for independence - all this was reflected in the galling portraits of Rowers of Riflets of SV. Adriana and St. George. His burghers in officers costumes, full of energies, cheerful people. But the artist is not always with such a fun sympathy refers to its models. The best samples of his group portrait are already written in a deep old age full of exposure strength of the image regent and resents shelter for the elderly.

The loyalty of Gals throughout his long creative way to realistic principles, the democratic nature of his art was the reason that in the past decades of their life he lost its inner popularity, his financial situation was shaken. The aristocratic bourgeoisie preferred other masters who felt the poll of their model.

The effects of malsa on contemporaries was very large; It affected not only in the portrait, but also in the domestic genre. The desire of galks to the living and truthful characteristics of human images, its optimistic globility prepared the ground for the heyday of the Dutch genre painting of the 40-60s of the XVII century.

Household genre

The household genre, the most popular in Dutch painting, testifies to the proximity of this art to real life. Favorite the topics of the painters of the Dutch school are taken from the Burgers life: this is the casual care of the hostess at home, the entertainment scene is a game of cards, a home concert, gallant conversations, treats. It is also the episodes of peasant life - most often scenes in rural taverns, boosters, fights. The small, "cabinet" size of the painting of the Dutch school is distinguished by a thorough performance, high quality painting. Depicting the rooms or courtyards of the Burgers houses, where the action usually takes place, the Dutch masters with extraordinary tactility transmit not only the world around the world of things, but also the mood of the coziness, the measured course of life.

From a huge number of Dutch genres, you need to name several of the most significant masters. Adrian Wang Odete (1610-1685), the largest representative of the peasant genre, passed a long journey from the conditionally grotesque scenes of Popoch and Drak, where the peasants were in a caricature form, to deeper images of the inhabitants of the Dutch village. Gerard Terborh (1617-1681) - a high-breed painter; His paintings, usually dedicated to the life of the Dutch patrician, are distinguished by the fine characteristic of the acting individuals and the sophistication of the color solution. Peter de Hookh (1629 - after 1684) was portrayed by the sun-lit by the Sun of the Dutch History, in which a leisurely life of the Dutch Burger flowed.

The highest achievements of Dutch genre painting are associated with the name of Yana Vermeer Delftsky (1632-1675). Scooty sources indicate that Vermeer worked for a long time for each picture, performing it with extraordinary thoroughness. According to the nature of its plot motives, Vermeer is almost no different from other Dutch genre, but the simple episodes of the life of Patrician houses, he knows how to exalt the level of large-drawn significance, high poetry. Believer's beloved motifs are one or more shapes in a flooded sunny spat interior. The soft lyrical mood of the cozy, characteristic of other Dutch genres, will develop in the feeling of deep peace, excellent harmony, captured by the artist in the peaceful flow of human life. The best of the genre paintings of the Vermeer belongs to the "girl reading a letter", "the maid with a jug of milk", "glass of wine", "artist's workshop".

Great contribution of Dutch masters and in landscape painting. They turned to the image of specific motives of nature. The modest landscapes of Holland are slow rivers with cities and villages on low shores, quiet channels, a high sky, almost always covered with gray clouds, "depicted Yang Van Goyen (1596-1656) and Solomon Van Reydal (about 1600-1670). A pictorial of secluded forest corners, abandoned water mills was Mainender Hobbemea (1638-1709). Special, characteristic of Netherlands, were marine landscapes (marina).

The largest master of the Dutch landscape was Jacob Van Reydal (1628-1682). From the same depth of penetration, he wrote epic plated landscapes and highly saturated landscapes with castles and ruins, a crowded urban area and snow covered village, stormy seas. Forest thickets, sand dunes and gloomy mountain landscapes with waterfalls.

The real feeling of the world of things inherent in the Dutch painters, the ability for each most common subject of household setting to feel the person who stands behind him allowed them even in the image of inaniseive items to create images of a large poetic content. The largest wizards of the early Dutch still life Peter Clas (about 1597-1661) and Bill Heba (1594 - about 1080) in accordance with the simple tastes of his time depicted modest "breakfasts": covered with a white tablecloth with a cake or ham, ruddy bun, tin jug; Their paintings are made in a restrained brownish gray range. In the second half of the century, they come to change the selection of objects and painting "desserts" Abraham Van Beieren (about 1620 - about 1690; and Calphy Villa (1622-1693).

Rembrandt.

The top of the Dutch realism is the creativity of Rembrandt. His images inherent ideological content and remarkable artistic skills put Rembrandt in a row with the greatest representatives of world art. It is equally great and as a painter and as a master engraving and drawing.

Rembrandt Garmers Wang Rhine was born in 1606 in Leiden, in the family owner of the mill. The calling for painting manifested itself very early. The first years of his creative path, which took place in Native Leiden, pass under the sign of searches for creative independence. In 1632, he moved to Amsterdam - the focus of the cultural life of the republic. In the major success of the "Lesson of the Anatomy of Dr. Tulp", Rembrandt solves the task of a group portrait in a new way, combining it with unity of action. The glory of Rembrandt grows, a lot of students flow into his workshop. The 30s - the time of the greatest life success of Rembrandt; Along with the paintings on the biblical and mythological plots, he writes a huge number of custom portraits, a lot works in the technique of etching and draws. The works of this decade are noted by a sense of a large life lift, emphasized by dramatic expressiveness, although not free from external effects. The best creatures of the 30s belongs to the "Dana", where the traditional mythological image acquires the features of an amazing life truth. The pictorial system of the artist, in which the leading role is played by the contrasts of lighting, reinforcing the emotional sound of images.

At the beginning of the 40s, the works of Rembrandt occurs a fracture - the artist is exempt from some features of limitations, characteristic of his earlier work, its realistic method is deepened, which, however, does not meet the recognition of bourgeois circles. In this respect, the history of his famous picture known as the "Night Watch" is indicative. Performing an order for a group portrait of the Rota shooters of Captain Banning Coca, Rembrandt violated all traditions. Instead of a series of chinno sitting shapes depicted on one canvase, he presented a scene on the street, full of realism and high poetry, a solemn speech of shooters surrounded by a city crowd attracted by this event. In this monumental work, the szvuk of the heroic times of the Netherlands revolution is heard. A hostile reception who met the "Night Watch" was an indicator of the limited tastes of the Dutch bourgeoisie, its departure from the progressive ideals of the revolutionary era.

In the works of the 40s, Rembrandt addresses the world of ordinary and poor people - it is in this environment that he finds carriers of high moral nobility, strong, sincere feelings. In such pictures as the "Holy Family" or "Mercy Samaritan", gospel events are depicted as episodes of everyday life. This gives a religious topic a special social meaning. In the same direction, Rembrandt graph develops. In the famous etching "Christ, healing patients", images of the poor and the suffering are opposed to self-satisfying pharyes.

The last 20 years is the most tragic time in the life of Rembrandt. His discrepancy with the dominant tastes of the bourgeoisie led to a decrease in orders and ended in 1656 by bankruptcy; The property and collections of the artist were sold out from the ekomic, and he himself was forced to settle in the poorest Amsterdam quarter. He is pursued by heavy family losses. But it was during these years that Rembrandt's art reaches its vertices. The monumental nature of the images, a deep disclosure of the inner world of a person, striking painting painting, based on consonants as if burning from the inside of reddish and brownish tones, are such a feature of his late art. The best of the works of this time - "Assore, Aman and Esphyr", "David in front of Saul", etc. At the same years, Rembrandt creates its full heroic power of the historic composition "Conspiracy Yulia Civilis", dedicated to the liberation struggle of the battles (considered the ancestors of the Netherlands) against Roman rule.

In the late years, the portrait art of the wizard reaches its top. In his portraits, Rembrandt is not limited to any other psychological aspect, but as it were, a picture of the entire spiritual life of a person, the continuous internal movement of thought and feelings. For Rembrandt, the wealth of the human person is inexhaustible; Referring to the same model repeatedly, the master always finds something new in it, unique. So, for example, Rembrandt created over a hundred car strokes. The best creatures of Rembrandt include portraits of Braving, Burgomistra Six, the second wife of the artist Hendrikier Stalffels, his son of the Titus for reading.

Rembrandt's finals of Rembrandt - his famous canvas "Return of the Prodigal Son" - shocks the radiation of a deep human feeling. Approval of humanistic ideals in the conditions of Holland in the XVII century. meant the inevitable rupture of the artist with a bourgeoisie, who left his revolutionary traditions. It is very significant that the death of the Great Master in 1669 passed completely unnoticed.

The few students who assimilated the high principles of Rembrandt realism belonged to the early deceased Karel Fabrichius (about 1622-1654) and Art de Gelder (1645-1727).

In the last quarter of the XVII century. There comes a period of complete decline of Dutch art.