Test "Political systems of modern Russia"
1. What function does the policy subsystem
A) adaptation function
B) the function of goal setting
C) coordination function
D) integration function
2. A special organization of political power in a community occupying a certain territory, having its own management system and possessing internal and external sovereignty is called
A) the state
B) country
In town
D) denomination
3 .K n national state applies
AND) religious community united by a unity of creed
B) community of people on an ethnic basis, able to serve as the basis or one of the elements of the nation
IN) ideology and practice of coexistence of various cultural groups
D) a special organization of political power in the community.
4. The political system that emerged after the Second World War and is characterized by the confrontation of two blocs of states - a socialist led by the USSR and a capitalist led by the United States, is called
A) North Atlantic world order
B) Warsaw world order
C) Washington world order
D) Yalta world order
5. The United Nations International Agency was established to
A) conducting and controlling free international trade
B) solutions to world conflicts
C) pursuing an aggressive information policy
D) preventing the global economic crisis
6. What was the name of the Organization of countries - producers and exporters of oil, which was created in the 60sXX
A) OPEC
B) EU
C) CMEA
D) TNCs
7. Who implemented the “open door” policy from the following countries
A) USA
B) China
C) Japan
D) Germany
8. What is the name of the system of performing state functions, in which a significant part of them is automated and transferred to the Internet
A) Email
B) information economy
IN) e-government
D) and information society
9 . Privatization is called
AND) cash payment of the right to use leased property
B) the process of transferring public property to the private sector
IN) income brought by factors of production
D) the process of preparing and executing a series of consecutive transactions between the borrower and its creditors and debtors.
10. Which of the following countries is a presidential republic
A) France;
B) Germany;
To China;
D) Russia.
11.How did the conflict between the Congress of People's Deputies and President Boris Yeltsin end after the collapse of the USSR
A) the adoption of the new Constitution and elections to the Russian parliament
B) only by the adoption of the new Constitution
C) only by elections to the Russian parliament
D) the introduction of the presidency
12. The lower house of the Russian parliament, consisting of 450 deputies, is
AND) Federal Assembly
B) The State Duma
IN) Council of the Federation
D) Congress of People's Deputies
29. A state that has legally declared the priority of one of the nations residing on its territory is called
AND) mono-ethnic state
B) multi-ethnic state
C) n national state
D) empire
1 3 . The issuer is called
AND) obligatory state monetary duty levied by customs authorities when exporting goods outside the state
B) type of political and economic activity, the main area of \u200b\u200bwhich is the establishment of regulations and financial and legal regulation in the field of economic operations
IN) entityissuing securities
D) purposeful action to limit or minimize risk, a method of financing risk, which consists in transferring risk.
14. The feeling of pride in one’s nation and the desire to exalt it is called
A) debt;
B) self-preservation;
C) pride;
D) patriotism.
15.Underneath ideological dominance is understood
AND) high level of development of communication technologies;
B) involves control of the main property in other countries;
IN) when they try to impose one belief system on all countries;
D) involves the control of large financial resources.
16. Democracy in its modern sense has its beginning in
A) Ancient Egypt;
B) Ancient Greece;
B) Ancient China;
D) Ancient India.
17.In which of the following countries does a constitutional monarchy exist
A) Russia;
B) Spain;
C) France;
D) USA.
18. A state that ensures the priority of such values \u200b\u200bas freedom, human rights, private property, the election and accountability of the authorities to the people in combination with the formation of authorities exclusively by the people of this country
A) constitutional democracy;
B) egalitarian democracy;
C) socialist democracy;
D) sovereign democracy.
19. Recently, an important element of the concept of state security in Russia has become
AND) sovereign democracy
B) oligarchic democracy;
C) constitutional democracy;
D) socialist democracy.
20. The country's ability to withstand competition in international economic relations is called
AND) national policy;
B) to country competitiveness;
C) the information model of the economy;
D) political and economic activity of the country.
21. The totality of economic, social, legal and organizational principles of governance in a state, which consists of entities that retain, to a greater or lesser degree, political independence, is called
A) constitutionalism;
B) unitarism;
C) federalism;
D) democracy.
22. By corruption is understood
AND) criminal activity in the field of state and municipal governmentaimed at extracting material benefits from the official position and authority;
B) the principle of the organization of society, in which success, promotion, career, public recognition of a person and citizen directly depend on his personal merits to society;
C) an indicator of the material well-being of people, measured by their income (for example, GNP per capita) or using indicators of material consumption;
D) close-knit social communities that prepare and make critical decisions in the field of economics and business.
23. The approval and support of legitimate authority by the people is called
A) sovereignty;
B) legitimacy;
C) law-abiding;
D) a meeting.
24. The sphere of activity of people, which inevitably exerts a decisive, authoritative influence on all other spheres, is
A) the economy;
B) religion;
C) policy;
D) information.
25. A systematically organized worldview that expresses the interests of a particular social group (class, estate, professional corporation, religious community, etc.) and requires the subordination of individual thoughts and actions of each member of such a group to the goals of the struggle for participation in power is called
A) political ideology;
B) ideological struggle;
C) political consciousness;
D) political culture.
26. What is the name of a society where the government is trying to forcibly affirm the ideals of the dominant ideology in the minds of citizens and in practical life
A) a cultural society;
B) an ideocratic society;
C) industrial society;
D) a democratic society.
27. What does the existence of a multiparty system lead to?
A) to the political opposition;
B) compliance with the rule of law;
C) to political competition;
D) to the freedom of receiving and disseminating information.
28. What is the name of the form of organization of the state in which the legislative power in the country belongs to an elected representative body (parliament) and the head of state is elected by the population (or special election body) for a certain term
A) constitutional;
B) republican;
B) federal;
D) monarchical.
29. The supreme legislative body of a country in a parliamentary republic is
A) Parliament;
B) the legislative assembly;
C) a thought;
D) party.
30. Which of the following countries is a parliamentary republic
A) Germany;
B) USA;
In Russia;
D) France.
Key to the test:
1.B
2.A
3.B
4.G
5 B
6.A
7.A
8.B
9.B
10.A
11.B
12.A
13.B
14.D
15.B
16.B
17.B
18.G
19.A
20.B
21.B
22.A
23.B
24.B
25.A
26.B
27.B
28.B
29.A
Test on the course "Political systems of modern Russia"1. What function does the policy subsystem
A) adaptation function
B) the function of goal setting
C) coordination function
D) integration function
2. A special organization of political power in a community occupying a certain territory, having its own management system and possessing internal and external sovereignty is called
A) the state
B) country
In town
D) denomination
3. applies to the national state
A) a religious community united by a unity of creed
B) a community of people on an ethnic basis, capable of serving as the foundation or one of the elements of the nation
C) the ideology and practice of the coexistence of various cultural groups
D) a special organization of political power in the community.
4. The political system that emerged after the Second World War and is characterized by the confrontation of two blocs of states - a socialist led by the USSR and a capitalist led by the United States, is called
A) North Atlantic world order
B) Warsaw world order
C) Washington world order
D) Yalta world order
5. The United Nations International Agency was established to
A) conducting and controlling free international trade
B) solutions to world conflicts
C) pursuing an aggressive information policy
D) preventing the global economic crisis
6. What was the name of the Organization of countries - producers and exporters of oil, which was created in the 60s of XX
A) OPEC
B) EU
D) TNCs
7. Who implemented the “open door” policy from the following countries
B) China
C) Japan
D) Germany
8. What is the name of the system of performing state functions, in which a significant part of them is automated and transferred to the Internet
A) Email
B) information economy
C) e-government
D) information society
9. Privatization is called
A) cash payment of the right to use the leased property
B) the process of transferring state property to the private sector
C) the income brought by factors of production
D) the process of preparing and executing a series of consecutive transactions between the borrower and its creditors and debtors.
10. Which of the following countries is a presidential republic
A) France;
B) Germany;
To China;
D) Russia.
11.How did the conflict between the Congress of People's Deputies and President Boris Yeltsin end after the collapse of the USSR
A) the adoption of the new Constitution and elections to the Russian parliament
B) only by the adoption of the new Constitution
C) only by elections to the Russian parliament
D) the introduction of the presidency
12. The lower house of the Russian parliament, consisting of 450 deputies, is
A) The Federal Assembly
B) The State Duma
C) Council of the Federation
D) Congress of People's Deputies
29. A state that has legally declared the priority of one of the nations residing on its territory is called
A) a mono-ethnic state
B) a multi-ethnic state
C) the national state
D) empire
13. The issuer is called
A) a mandatory state monetary fee levied by customs authorities when exporting goods outside the state
B) the type of political and economic activity, the main area of \u200b\u200bwhich is the establishment of regulations and financial and legal regulation in the field of economic operations
C) the legal entity issuing equity securities
D) targeted action to limit or minimize risk, a method of financing risk, which consists in transferring risk.
14. The feeling of pride in one’s nation and the desire to exalt it is called
B) self-preservation;
C) pride;
D) patriotism.
15. Under ideological dominance is understood
A) a high level of development of communication technologies;
B) involves control of the main property in other countries;
C) when they try to impose one belief system on all countries;
D) involves the control of large financial resources.
16. Democracy in its modern sense has its beginning in
A) Ancient Egypt;
B) Ancient Greece;
B) Ancient China;
D) Ancient India.
17.In which of the following countries does a constitutional monarchy exist
A) Russia;
B) Spain;
C) France;
18. A state that ensures the priority of such values \u200b\u200bas freedom, human rights, private property, the election and accountability of the authorities to the people in combination with the formation of authorities exclusively by the people of this country
A) constitutional democracy;
B) egalitarian democracy;
C) socialist democracy;
D) sovereign democracy.
19. Recently, an important element of the concept of state security in Russia has become
A) sovereign democracy
B) oligarchic democracy;
C) constitutional democracy;
D) socialist democracy.
20. The country's ability to withstand competition in international economic relations is called
A) national policy;
B) the competitiveness of the country;
C) the information model of the economy;
D) political and economic activity of the country.
21. The totality of economic, social, legal and organizational principles of governance in a state, which consists of entities that retain, to a greater or lesser degree, political independence, is called
A) constitutionalism;
B) unitarism;
C) federalism;
D) democracy.
22. By corruption is understood
A) criminal activity in the field of state and municipal government, aimed at extracting material benefits from the official position and authority;
B) the principle of the organization of society, in which success, promotion, career, public recognition of a person and citizen directly depend on his personal merits to society;
C) an indicator of the material well-being of people, measured by their income (for example, GNP per capita) or using indicators of material consumption;
D) close-knit social communities that prepare and make critical decisions in the field of economics and business.
23. The approval and support of legitimate authority by the people is called
A) sovereignty;
B) legitimacy;
C) law-abiding;
D) a meeting.
24. The sphere of activity of people, which inevitably exerts a decisive, authoritative influence on all other spheres, is
A) the economy;
B) religion;
C) policy;
D) information.
25. A systematically organized worldview that expresses the interests of a particular social group (class, estate, professional corporation, religious community, etc.) and requires the subordination of individual thoughts and actions of each member of such a group to the goals of the struggle for participation in power is called
A) political ideology;
B) ideological struggle;
C) political consciousness;
D) political culture.
26. What is the name of a society where the government is trying to forcibly affirm the ideals of the dominant ideology in the minds of citizens and in practical life
A) a cultural society;
B) an ideocratic society;
C) industrial society;
D) a democratic society.
27. What does the existence of a multiparty system lead to?
A) to the political opposition;
B) compliance with the rule of law;
C) to political competition;
D) to the freedom of receiving and disseminating information.
28. What is the name of the form of organization of the state in which the legislative power in the country belongs to an elected representative body (parliament) and the head of state is elected by the population (or special election body) for a certain term
A) constitutional;
B) republican;
B) federal;
D) monarchical.
29. The supreme legislative body of a country in a parliamentary republic is
A) Parliament;
B) the legislative assembly;
C) a thought;
D) party.
30. Which of the following countries is a parliamentary republic
A) Germany;
B) USA;
In Russia;
D) France.
Political relations are hierarchical levels of power of various entities and the interaction of social actors in order to achieve the intended political goals.
Politics (from politike - Greek social affairs) is an area of \u200b\u200bactivity related to the coordination of the interests of individual social groups, with the goal of conquering, organizing and using state power and managing social processes on behalf of society and in order to maintain the viability of the civic community.
Politics find expression in political ideas, theories, in the activities of the state, political parties, organizations, associations and other political institutions. In their totality, the dominant political ideas, theories, the state, political parties, organizations, receptions and methods of their activity form the political system of society. The concept of "political system" allows you to most fully and consistently reveal the socio-political nature of society, the political relations existing in it, the norms and principles of the organization of power.
The structure of the political system includes:
1. The institutional subsystem, consisting of various socio-political institutions and organizations, the most important of which is the state.
2. Normative (regulatory), acting in the form of political and legal norms and other means of regulating the relationships between the subjects of the political system.
3. Political and ideological, which includes a set of political ideas, theories and views, on the basis of which various socio-political institutions are formed and operate as elements of the political system of society.
4. A functional subsystem containing the main forms and directions in the activities of the political system, ways and means of influencing it on public life, which finds expression in political relations and the political regime.
The main institution of the political system is the state. There are a number of theories that explain the nature and paths of the state.
From the point of view of the theory of “natural origin,” the state is the result of the mutual influence of natural and social factors, it expresses the principles of the natural distribution of power (in the forms of domination and submission) in nature (the teachings on the state of Plato and Aristotle).
The Theory of Social Contracts considers the state to be the result of an agreement of all members of society. Coercive power, the sole administrator of which is the state, is exercised in the common interest, as it maintains order and legality (T. Hobbes, D. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau).
From the point of view of Marxism, the state appeared as a result of the social division of the pile, the emergence of private property, classes and exploitation. By virtue of this, it is an instrument of oppression in the hands of the ruling class (K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin).
The Theory of Conquest (Conquest) considers the state to be the result of the subjugation of some peoples by others and the need to organize the management of conquered territories (L. Gumplovich, Guizot, Thierry).
“Patriarchal”: The state is a form of expanded patriarchal (from Latin father) power, traditional for primitive forms of social organization, which acts as an expression of common interests and serving the common good. (R. Filmer).
In the framework of the modern approach to the problem, the state is understood as the main institution of the political system that organizes, directs and controls the joint activities and relations of people, public groups and associations.
As the main political institution, the state differs from other institutions of society in its features and functions.
The following features are common to the state:
The territory outlined by the borders of the state;
- sovereignty, i.e. supreme power within the boundaries of a certain territory, which is embodied in its right to legislate;
- the presence of specialized management institutions, state apparatus;
- law and order - the state acts within the framework of the rules of law established by it and is limited to them;
- Citizenship - a legal union of persons residing in a state-controlled territory;
- monopoly the illegal use of force on behalf of society and in its interests;
- The right to levy taxes and fees on the population.
With a modern interpretation of the essence of the state, its main functions can be distinguished:
Protection of the existing social order,
- maintaining in society stability and order,
- prevention of socially dangerous conflicts,
- regulation of the economy, the conduct of domestic and foreign policy,
- protection of state interests in the international arena,
- the implementation of ideological activities, the defense of the country.
The most important functions of modern state regulation of the national economy of the Republic of Belarus can be:
The implementation of the functions of the owner of state property operating on the market on an equal footing with subjects of other forms of ownership;
- the formation of a mechanism for economic regulation, support and stimulation of the work of innovative business entities;
- development and implementation of market structural policies using effective monetary, tax and price instruments;
- ensuring economic and social protection of the population.
To carry out these functions, the state forms a set of special bodies and institutions that make up the structure of the state, which includes the following institutions of state power:
1. Representative bodies of state power. They are divided into the highest representative bodies with legislative power (parliament), and local authorities and self-government, formed in accordance with the administrative-territorial division of the country.
2. Government bodies. Distinguish between the highest (government), central (ministries, departments) and local executive bodies.
3. The judicial authorities and the prosecutor's office administer justice in resolving conflicts, restoring violated rights, and punishing violators of the law.
4. Army, law enforcement agencies and state security.
To understand the essence of the state as a ruling institution, it is important to find out its aspects such as forms of state power, forms of government and political regime. The form of government refers to the organization of the supreme power and the procedure for its formation. On this basis, two main forms are traditionally distinguished: the monarchy and the republic.
The monarchy is a form of government, in which power is concentrated in the hands of the sole head of state. The following features are inherent in the monarchy: life-long rule, hereditary succession of the supreme power, lack of the principle of legal responsibility of the monarch.
A republic is a form of state government in which the highest bodies of state power are either elected by the people or formed by national representative institutions. The following elements are inherent in the republican government: the collegial nature of the bodies of higher authority, the elective nature of the main posts, the term of employment of which is limited in time, the delegative nature of the authority of the authorities that are handed to it and taken away in the process of popular expression, the legal responsibility of the head of state.
Forms of the national-territorial structure characterize the internal organization of the state, the existing formula for correlating the powers of the central and regional authorities:
A unitary state is a state that is subdivided into administrative-territorial units having equal status.
- The Federation is a union of state entities that are independent within the boundaries of power distributed between them and the federal center of power.
- Confederation - a union of sovereign states, which is created to implement specific joint goals.
Under the political regime is understood the totality of institutional, cultural and sociological elements that contribute to the formation of the political power of a given country in a certain period of time. The classification of political regimes is carried out according to the following criteria: the nature of political leadership, the mechanism of the formation of power, the role of political parties, the relationship between legislative and executive power, the role and importance of non-governmental organizations and structures, the role of ideology in society, the status of means mass media, the role and importance of suppressive organs, type political behavior.
Typology of X. Linz includes three types of political regimes: totalitarian, authoritarian, democratic:
Totalitarianism is a political regime that exercises control over all spheres of society.
Its signs are:
The rigid pyramid of central authority;
- centralized economy;
- the desire to achieve uniformity in all phenomena of life;
- the dominance of one party, one ideology;
- monopoly on the media, etc.
All this leads to a restriction of the rights and freedoms of the individual, to the planting of truly subordinate, with elements of slavery, the psychology of the masses.
Authoritarianism is a political regime established by such a form of power, which is concentrated in the hands of the sole ruler or ruling group and reduces the role of other, primarily representative institutions. Characteristic features of authoritarian regimes are: the concentration of power in the hands of one person or the ruling group, the unlimited nature of power, far beyond the scope defined for them by law, the lack of control of power by citizens, the prevention of political opposition and competition by the authorities, the restriction of political rights and freedoms of citizens, the use of repression to fight opponents of the regime.
A democratic regime is a political regime in which people are a source of power. Democracy is characterized by the following features: the presence of mechanisms that ensure the practical implementation of the principle of popular sovereignty, the absence of restrictions on the participation of all categories of citizens in the political process, the periodic election of the main government bodies, public control over the adoption of the most important political decisions, the absolute priority of legal methods for the implementation and change of power, ideological pluralism and competition of opinions.
The result of the establishment of a democratic political regime must be civil society. This is a society with developed economic, cultural, legal and political relations between its members, independent of the state, but interacting and cooperating with it. The economic basis of civil society is the separation of economic and political relations, the presence of an economically free person, private and collective types of property. The political and legal foundation is political pluralism. The spiritual foundation is the highest moral values \u200b\u200bthat exist in a given society at this stage of development. The main element of civil society is a person, perceived as a person, striving for self-assertion and self-realization, which is possible only if the individual is guaranteed the rights to individual freedom in the political and economic spheres.
The idea of \u200b\u200bcivil society arose in the middle of the 17th century. For the first time the term "civil society" was used by G. Leibniz. A significant contribution to the development of civil society problems was made by T. Hobbes, J. Locke, S. Montesquieu, who relied on the ideas of natural law and social contract. A condition for the emergence of civil society is the emergence of all citizens of a society of economic independence on the basis of private property.
Civil society structure:
Socio-political organizations and movements (environmental, antiwar, human rights, etc.);
- unions of entrepreneurs, consumer associations, charitable foundations; - scientific and cultural organizations, sports societies;
- municipal communes, associations of voters, political clubs;
- independent media;
- church;
- a family.
Civil Society Functions:
Satisfying the material, spiritual needs of man;
- protection of private areas of human life;
- containment of political power from absolute domination;
- stabilization of social relations and processes.
The concept of the rule of law has deep historical and theoretical roots. It was developed by D. Locke, S. Montesquieu, T. Jefferson, and substantiates the legal equality of all citizens, the priority of human rights over the laws of the state, non-interference of the state in the affairs of civil society.
Constitutional state - this is a state in which the rule of law is ensured, the sovereignty of the people as a source of power, the subordination of the state to society is affirmed. It clearly defines the mutual obligations of the governors and the governed, the prerogatives of political power and individual rights. Such self-restriction of the state is possible only if the authorities are divided into legislative, executive and judicial, which excludes the possibility of monopolizing it in the hands of one person or body.
The rule of law implies:
1. The rule of law.
2. The universality of law, the coherence of the law of the state and its bodies.
3. The mutual responsibility of the state and the individual.
4. State protection of lawfully acquired property and citizens' savings.
5. Separation of powers.
6. The inviolability of individual freedom, its rights, honor and dignity.
The rule of law is a state limited by law in its actions. Law is a system of generally binding norms established by the state and protected by the state (rules of conduct) designed to regulate and streamline public relations. A close relationship with the state distinguishes law from other regulatory systems, in particular from morality.
In modern society, there are various branches of law that regulate activities and relations in all major areas public life. It reinforces property relations. It acts as a regulator of the measures and forms of distribution of labor and its products between members of society (civil and labor law), regulates the organization and activities of the state mechanism (constitutional and administrative law), defines measures to combat the encroachment on existing social relations and the procedure for resolving conflicts in society ( criminal law), affects forms of interpersonal relations (family law). A special role and specificity is distinguished by international law. It is created through agreements between states and regulates relations between them.
Acting as an important and necessary tool of public administration, as a form of implementation of public policy, law is simultaneously the most important indicator of a person’s position in society and the state. Rights, freedoms and duties of a person and citizen, constituting legal status individuals - the most important component of law, characterizing the development and democracy of the entire legal system.
State - the organization of political power, managing society and ensuring order and stability in it.
The main state signs are: the presence of a certain territory, sovereignty, a wide social base, a monopoly on legitimate violence, the right to collect taxes, the public nature of power, the presence of state symbols.
State fulfills internal functions among which - economic, stabilization, coordination, social, etc. There are also external functions the most important of which are defense and international cooperation.
By form of government states are divided into monarchies (constitutional and absolute) and republics (parliamentary, presidential and mixed). Depending on the forms of government distinguish unitary states, federations and confederations.
State
State - This is a special organization of political power, which has a special apparatus (mechanism) for managing society to ensure its normal functioning.
IN historical In terms of plan, the state can be defined as a social organization that has ultimate power over all people living within the boundaries of a certain territory, and which has as its main goal the solution of common problems and the provision of the common good while maintaining, first of all, order.
IN structural the plan, the state appears as an extensive network of institutions and organizations, representing the three branches of government: legislative, executive and judicial.
Government It is sovereign, i.e. supreme, in relation to all organizations and individuals within the country, as well as independent, independent in relation to other states. The state is the official representative of the whole society, all its members, called citizens.
Loans taken from the population and received from him are directed to the maintenance of the state apparatus of power.
The state is a universal organization, characterized by a number of attributes and attributes that have no analogues.
Signs of the state
- Coercion - state coercion is primary and priority in relation to the right to coerce other entities within a given state and is carried out by specialized bodies in situations determined by law.
- Sovereignty - the state has the highest and unlimited power in relation to all persons and organizations operating within historically established borders.
- Universality - the state acts on behalf of the whole society and extends its power to the entire territory.
Signs of state are the territorial organization of the population, state sovereignty, tax collection, lawmaking. The state subjugates the entire population living in a certain territory, regardless of the administrative-territorial division.
State Attributes
- Territory - defined by the borders dividing the spheres of sovereignty of individual states.
- Population - subjects of the state on which its power extends and under whose protection they are located.
- The apparatus is a system of bodies and the existence of a special "class of officials" through which the state functions and develops. The publication of laws and regulations binding on the entire population of a given state is carried out by the state legislative body.
State concept
The state arises at a certain stage in the development of society as a political organization, as an institution of power and management of society. There are two main concepts of the emergence of the state. In accordance with the first concept, the state arises in the course of the natural development of society and the conclusion of an agreement between citizens and rulers (T. Hobbes, J. Locke). The second concept goes back to the ideas of Plato. She rejects the first and insists that the state arises as a result of the conquest (conquest) of a relatively small group of militant and organized people (tribe, race) significantly larger in number, but less organized population (D. Hume, F. Nietzsche). Obviously, in the history of mankind, both the first and second methods of the state's emergence took place.
As already mentioned, at first the state was the only political organization in society. In the future, during the development of the political system of society, other political organizations (parties, movements, blocs, etc.) arise.
The term "state" is usually used in a broad and narrow sense.
In a broad sense the state is identified with society, with a certain country. For example, we say: “UN member states,” “NATO member states,” “India state.” In the above examples, the state refers to entire countries along with their peoples living in a certain territory. This idea of \u200b\u200bthe state dominated in antiquity in the Middle Ages.
In the narrow sense the state is understood as one of the institutions of the political system that has supreme power in society. This understanding of the role and place of the state is justified during the formation of civil society institutions (XVIII - XIX centuries), when the political system and social structure of society become more complicated, it becomes necessary to separate state institutions and institutions from society and other non-state institutions of the political system.
The state is the main socio-political institution of society, the core of the political system. Possessing sovereign power in society, it manages the life of people, regulates relations between different social strata and classes, and is responsible for the stability of society and the safety of its citizens.
The state has a difficult organizational structure, which includes the following elements: legislative institutions, executive and administrative bodies, judicial system, public order and state security agencies, the armed forces, etc. All this allows the state to fulfill not only the functions of managing society, but also the functions of coercion (institutionalized violence) against both individual citizens and large social communities (classes, classes, nation) ) So, during the years of Soviet power in the USSR, many classes and estates were actually destroyed (the bourgeoisie, the merchants, the prosperous peasantry, etc.), whole nations (Chechens, Ingush, Crimean Tatars, Germans, etc.) were subjected to political repression.
Signs of the state
Main subject political activities recognized by the state. FROM functional From the point of view of the state, it is a leading political institution that manages society and ensures order and stability in it. FROM organizational From the point of view of the state, it is an organization of political power that enters into relations with other subjects of political activity (for example, citizens). In this understanding, the state is considered as a set of political institutions (courts, social security system, army, bureaucracy, local authorities, etc.) responsible for organizing social life and funded by society.
Signsthat distinguish the state from other subjects of political activity are as follows:
The presence of a certain territory - The jurisdiction of the state (the right to adjudicate and decide legal issues) is determined by its territorial boundaries. Within these boundaries, the power of the state extends to all members of society (both possessing citizenship of the country and not possessing it);
Sovereignty - the state is completely independent in home affairs and in the conduct of foreign policy;
Variety of resources used - the state accumulates the main power resources (economic, social, spiritual, etc.) to exercise its powers;
The desire to represent the interests of the whole society - the state acts on behalf of the whole society, and not individuals or social groups;
Monopoly on legitimate violence - the state has the right to use force to enforce laws and punish their violators;
Tax collection right - the state establishes and collects various taxes and fees from the population, which are used to finance state bodies and solve various managerial tasks;
The public nature of power - The state protects public interests, not private ones. In the implementation of public policy usually does not arise a personal relationship between government and citizens;
The presence of symbols - the state has its own signs of statehood - a flag, coat of arms, anthem, special symbols and attributes of power (for example, the crown, scepter and power in some monarchies), etc.
In a number of contexts, the concept of “state” is perceived as close in meaning to the concepts of “country”, “society”, “government”, but this is not so.
Country - the concept is primarily cultural and geographical. This term is usually used in those cases when they speak of area, climate, natural areas, population, nationalities, religions, etc. The state is a political concept and means political organization that other country - the form of its rule and structure, political regime, etc.
Society - the concept is broader than the state. For example, a society can be over state (society as all of humanity) or pre-state (such are a tribe and primitive race). On the modern stage the concepts of society and the state also do not coincide: public power (say, a layer of professional managers) is relatively independent and isolated from the rest of society.
Government - only a part of the state, its highest administrative and executive body, an instrument for exercising political power. The state is a sustainable institution, while governments come and go.
Common features of the state
Despite all the variety of types and forms of state formations that arose earlier and exist at the present time, we can distinguish common features that are more or less characteristic of any state. In our opinion, these signs were stated most fully and reasonably by V.P. Pugachev.
These signs include the following:
- public authority, separated from society and not coinciding with social organization; the presence of a special layer of people engaged in the political management of society;
- a certain territory (political space), defined by borders, to which the laws and powers of the state apply;
- sovereignty - the supreme power over all citizens living in a certain territory, their institutions and organizations;
- monopoly on the legal use of force. Only the state has “legal” grounds for restricting the rights and freedoms of citizens and even depriving them of their lives. For these purposes, it has special power structures: army, police, courts, prisons, etc. P.;
- the right to levy taxes and duties on the population, which are necessary for the maintenance of state bodies and the material support of state policy: defense, economic, social, etc .;
- mandatory membership in the state. A person receives citizenship from the moment of birth. Unlike membership in a party or other organizations, citizenship is a necessary attribute of any person;
- claim to represent the entire society as a whole and to protect common interests and goals. In reality, no state or other organization is able to fully reflect the interests of all social groups, classes and individual citizens of society.
All functions of the state can be divided into two main types: internal and external.
By doing internal functions the state’s activity is aimed at managing society, at harmonizing the interests of various social strata and classes, and at preserving its authority. By exercising external functions, the state acts as a subject international relationsrepresenting a certain people, territory and sovereign power.
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus
Educational institution
"Vitebsk State Technological University"
Department of Philosophy
Test
Political power
Made by:
Stud. column ZA-13 IV course
Kudryavtsev D.V.
Checked:
art. pr. Grishanov V.A.
Sources and resources of political power
Problems of legitimate authority
Literature
1. The essence of political power, its objects, subjects and functions
Power - the ability and ability of the subject to exercise his will, to exert a decisive influence on the activity, behavior of another subject using any means. In other words, power is a volitional relationship between two entities, in which one of them - the subject of power - imposes certain requirements on the behavior of the other, and the other - in this case it will be a subject subject or object of power - obeys the orders of the first.
Power as a relationship between two subjects is the result of actions that produce both sides of this relationship: one - induces a certain action, the other - carries it out. Any power attitude presupposes as an indispensable condition for the expression in any form by the ruling (dominant) subject of his will, addressed to the one over whom he exercises power.
The external expression of the will of the dominant entity may be a law, a decree, an order, an order, a directive, an order, an instruction, a rule, a ban, an indication, a demand, a wish, etc.
Only after the subject has understood the content of the requirements addressed to him, can one expect any response from him. However, at the same time, the one to whom the demand is addressed can always refuse it. An imperious attitude also presupposes the existence of a reason that prompts the object of power to fulfill the command of the dominant subject. In the above definition of power, this reason is indicated by the term "means". Only if it is possible for the dominant entity to use the means of submission, can an authority relationship become a reality. Means of submission or, in more common terminology, means of influence (power influence) constitute those socially significant physical, material, social, psychological and moral factors for subjects of public relations that the subject of power can use to subordinate to his will the activities of the subject subject (object of power) . Depending on the means of influence used by the subject, power relations can take at least the form of force, coercion, motivation, conviction, manipulation or authority.
Power in the form of power means the ability of the subject to achieve the desired result in a relationship with the subject either by directly influencing his body and psyche, or by limiting his actions. In coercion, the source of subordination to the command of the ruling subject is the threat of negative sanctions in case of refusal of the subject to obey. Motivation as a means of influence is based on the ability of the subject of power to provide the subject with the benefits (values \u200b\u200band services) in which he is interested. In persuasion, the source of power influence lies in those arguments that the subject of power uses to subordinate his will to the activity of the subject. Manipulation as a means of submission is based on the ability of the subject of power to carry out a hidden effect on the behavior of the subject subject. The source of subordination in the power relation in the form of authority is a certain set of characteristics of the subject of power, which cannot be ignored by the subject and therefore he submits to the requirements presented to him.
Power is an indispensable aspect of human communication; it is due to the need to submit to the single will of all participants in any community of people in order to ensure its integrity and stability. Power is universal in nature, it permeates all types of human interaction, all spheres of society. A scientific approach to the analysis of the phenomenon of power requires taking into account the multiplicity of its manifestations and elucidating the specific features of its individual types - economic, social, political, spiritual, military, family and others. The most important form of power is political power.
The central problem of politics and political science is power. The concept of "power" refers to the fundamental categories of political science. It provides a key to understanding the whole life of society. Sociologists talk about social power, lawyers about state power, psychologists about power over oneself, parents about family power.
Power historically arose as one of the vital functions of human society, ensuring the survival of the human community in the face of a possible external threat and creating guarantees for the existence of individuals within this community. The natural nature of power is manifested in the fact that it arises as a society’s need for self-regulation, in maintaining integrity and stability in the presence in it of different, sometimes opposing, interests of people.
Naturally - the historical nature of power is manifested in its continuity. Power never disappears, it can be inherited, taken away by other interested parties, and can be radically transformed. But any group or individual who comes to power cannot but reckon with the overthrown power, with the traditions, consciousness, culture of power relations accumulated in the country. Continuity is also manifested in the countries actively borrowing from each other the universal experience in implementing power relations.
It is clear that power arises under certain conditions. Polish sociologist Jerzy Vyatr believes that the existence of power requires at least two partners, and these partners can be both individuals and groups of people. The condition for the emergence of power should also be the subordination of the one over whom the power is exercised to the one who exercises it in accordance with social standards, establishing the right to give orders and the obligation to obey.
Consequently, relations of power are a necessary and indispensable mechanism for regulating the life of society, ensuring and maintaining its unity. This confirms the objective nature of power in human society.
The German sociologist Max Weber defines power as the ability of an actor to realize his own will, even despite the resistance of other participants in the action and regardless of what such an opportunity is based on.
Power is a complex phenomenon, including various structural elements located in a certain hierarchy (from higher to lower) and interacting with each other. The system of power can be represented in the form of a pyramid, the top of which are those who exercise power, and the foundation is those who obey it.
Power is an expression of the will of a society, class, group of people, and an individual. This confirms the conditionality of the authorities in their respective interests.
The analysis of political science theories shows that in modern political science there is no one generally accepted understanding of the essence and definition of power. This, however, does not exclude similarities in their interpretation.
In this regard, several concepts of power can be distinguished.
The approach to the consideration of power, which studies political processes in conjunction with social processes and psychological motives of people's behavior, is the basis of behaviorist (behavioral concepts of power. The principles of behaviorist analysis of politics are described in the work of the founder of this school, American researcher John B. Watson, "Human nature in politics ". The phenomena of political life are explained by the natural properties of man, his life behavior. Human behavior, including political behavior, is a response to actions the environment. Power is therefore a special type of behavior based on the possibility of changing the behavior of other people.
The relational (role) concept understands power as an interpersonal relationship between the subject and object of power, suggesting the possibility of the willful influence of some individuals and groups on others. This is how American political scientist Hans Morgenthau and German sociologist M. Weber define power. In modern Western political literature, the definition of G. Morgenthau’s power, which is interpreted as the exercise by a person of control over the consciousness and actions of other people, is widespread. Other representatives of this concept define power as the ability to exercise one’s will either through fear, or by refusing someone to reward, or in the form of punishment. The last two modes of influence (refusal and punishment) are negative sanctions.
The French sociologist Raymond Aron rejects almost all the definitions of power known to him, considering them formalized and abstract, not taking into account psychological aspects, and not figuring out the exact meaning of such terms as “power”, “power”. Because of this, in the opinion of R. Aron, an ambiguous understanding of power arises.
Power like political concept means the relationship between people. Here R. Aron agrees with relationalists. At the same time, Aron argues, power refers to hidden opportunities, abilities, forces that appear under certain circumstances. Therefore, power is the potency that a person or group owns to establish relationships with other people or groups that are consistent with their desires.
Within the framework of a systemic concept, power provides the vital functions of society as a system, ordering each subject to fulfill the duties imposed on him by the goals of society, and mobilizes resources to achieve the goals of the system. (T. Parsons, M. Crozier, T. Clark).
American political analyst Hannah Arendt notes that power is not the answer to the question of who controls whom. Power, according to X. Arendt, is in full accordance with the human ability not only to act, but to act together. Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to study the system of social institutions, those communications through which power is manifested and materialized. This is the essence of the communication (structurally functional) concept of power.
The definition of power given by American sociologists Harold D. Lasswell and A. Kaplan in their book "Power and Society" is as follows: power is participation or the opportunity to participate in decision-making governing the distribution of benefits in conflict situations. This is one of the fundamental provisions of the conflict concept of power.
Close to this concept is the teleological concept, the main position of which was formulated by the English liberal professor, the famous peace activist Bertrand Russell: power can be a means of achieving certain goals.
The common feature of all concepts is that power relations are considered in them, first of all, as the relations of two partners acting on each other. This - makes it difficult to single out the main determinant of power - why, nevertheless, one can impose his will on another, and this other, although resisting, still has to fulfill the imposed will.
The Marxist concept of power and the struggle for power is characterized by a clearly defined class approach to the social nature of power. In the Marxist understanding, power is dependent, secondary. This dependence follows from the manifestation of the will of the class. Even in the “Manifesto of the Communist Party”, K. Marx and F. Engels determined that “political power in the proper sense of the word is organized violence of one class against another” (K. Marx. F. Engels Soch., 2nd edition, v. 4, s: 447).
All of these concepts, their multivariance testify to the complexity and diversity of politics and power. In this light, one should not sharply contrast each other with class and non-class approaches to political power, a Marxist and non-Marxist understanding of this phenomenon. All of them to a certain extent complement each other and allow you to create a complete and most objective picture. Power as one of the forms of social relations is capable of influencing the content of people's activities and behavior through economic, ideological and legal mechanisms.
Thus, power is an objectively determined social phenomenon, expressed in the ability of a person or group to manage others, based on certain needs or interests.
Political power - a volitional relationship between social actors that make up a politically (i.e. state) organized community, the essence of which is to motivate one social entity to conduct others in a direction that is desirable for himself by using his authority, social and legal norms, organized violence , economic, ideological, emotional-psychological and other means of influence. Political-power relations arise in response to the need to maintain the integrity of the community and regulate the implementation of the individual, group and common interests of its constituent people. The phrase political power is also due to the ancient Greek polis and literally means power in the polis community. The modern meaning of the concept of political power reflects the fact that everything is political, i.e. a state-organized, organized community of people with its fundamental beginning presupposes the presence among its participants of relations of domination and submission and the necessary attributes associated with them: laws, police, courts, prisons, taxes, etc. In other words, power and politics are inseparable and interdependent. The government, undoubtedly, represents a means of implementing the policy, and political relations are, first of all, the interaction of community members regarding the mastery of the means of power influence, their organization, retention and use. It is the power that gives politics that originality, thanks to which it appears as a special type of social interaction. And that is why political relations can be called political-power relations. They arise in response to the need to maintain the integrity of the political community and regulate the implementation of the individual, group, and common interests of its constituent people.
Thus, political power is an inherent form of social relations inherent in a politically organized community of people, characterized by the ability of various social actors - individuals, social groups and communities - to subordinate to their will the activities of other social entities using state legal and other means. Political power is the real ability and ability of social forces to exercise their will in politics and legal norms, primarily in accordance with their needs and interests.
The functions of political power, i.e. its social purpose, the same as the functions of the state. Political power is, firstly, a tool for maintaining the integrity of the community and, secondly, a means of regulating the process by which social actors realize their individual, group and common interests. This is the main function of political power. Its other functions, the list of which may be large (for example, leadership, management, coordination, organization, mediation, mobilization, control, etc.), have subordinate significance to the two.
Certain types of power can be distinguished on various grounds accepted for classification:
Other grounds for classifying the types of power may be accepted: absolute, personal, family, clan power, etc.
Political science explores political power.
Power in society acts in non-political and political forms. In the primitive communal system, where there were no classes, the state means, and politics, social power was not of a political nature. She was the power of all members of this clan, tribe, community.
Non-political forms of power are characterized by the fact that the objects are small social groups and it is exercised directly by the ruling individual without a special intermediary apparatus and mechanism. Non-political forms include family, school power, power in the production team, etc.
Political power arose in the process of development of society. As property appears and accumulates in the hands of certain groups of people, a redistribution of managerial and administrative functions occurs, i.e. change in the nature of power. From the power of the whole society (primitive), it turns into the power of the propertied strata, becomes a kind of property of the nascent classes and, as a result, acquires a political character. In a class society, governance is exercised through political power. Political forms of power are characterized by the fact that their object is large social groups, and power in them is exercised through social institutions. Political power is also a strong-willed attitude, but an attitude between classes, social groups.
Political power has a number of characteristic features that define it as a relatively independent phenomenon. She has her own laws of development. To be stable, the government must take into account the interests of not only the ruling classes, but also subordinate groups, as well as the interests of the whole society. Characteristic features of political power are: its sovereignty and supremacy in the system of relations in society, as well as indivisibility, authority and strong-willed character.
Political power is always imperative. The will and interests of the ruling class, groups of people through political power take the form of law, certain rules, binding on the whole population. Failure to comply with laws and non-compliance with normative acts entails legal and legal punishment, up to and including coercion to comply with them.
The most important feature of political power is its close connection with the economy, economic conditionality. Since the relations between ownership are the most important factor in the economy, ownership of the means of production is the economic basis of political power. The right to property also gives the right to power.
At the same time, representing the interests of economically dominant classes, groups and being determined by these interests, political power has an active impact on the economy. F. Engels names three areas of such impact: political power acts in the same direction as the economy - then the development of society goes faster; against economic development - then, after a certain period of time, political power crashes; power can put obstacles to economic development and push it in other directions. As a result, F. Engels emphasizes, in the last two cases, political power can inflict the greatest harm on economic development and cause waste of forces and material in large quantities (K. Marx and F. Engels Soch., Vol. 2, vol. 37. p. 417).
Thus, political power acts as a real ability and opportunity of an organized class or social group, as well as individuals reflecting their interests, to carry out their will in politics and legal norms.
The political forms of power, first of all, include state power. It is necessary to distinguish between political power and state. All state power is political, but not all political power is state.
IN AND. Lenin, criticizing the Russian populist P. Struve for recognizing coercive power as the main feature of the state, wrote "... coercive power exists in every human community, in the clan system, and in the family, but there was no state here ... Sign of state isolated class of persons in whose hands power is concentrated "(Lenin V.I. Pol. sobr. soch. T. 2, p. 439).
State power is power exercised with the help of a special apparatus and having the ability to access the means of organized and legislatively enforced violence. State power is so inseparable from the state that in the scientific literature of practical use these concepts are often identified. A state can exist for some time without a clearly defined territory, a strict delimitation of borders, without a well-defined population. But without government there is no state.
The most important features of state power are its public nature and the presence of a certain territorial structure, which is subject to state sovereignty. The state has a monopoly not only on legal and legal consolidation of power, but also a monopoly on the right to use violence using a special coercive apparatus. State authorities' orders are binding on the entire population, foreign citizens and stateless persons who live permanently on the territory of the state.
State power performs a number of functions in society: it establishes laws, administers justice, and directs all aspects of the life of society. The main functions of state power should include:
Ensuring domination, that is, the implementation of the will of the ruling group in relation to society, the submission (full or partial, absolute or relative) of some classes, groups, persons to others;
Guiding the development of society in accordance with the interests of the ruling classes, social groups;
management i.e. the implementation in practice of the main directions of development and the adoption of specific management decisions;
Control involves the supervision of the implementation of decisions and compliance with the norms and rules of people's activities.
The actions of state authorities to implement their functions constitute the essence of politics. Thus, state power represents the fullest expression of political power, is political power in its most developed form.
Political power can also be non-state. These are the party and military. There are many examples in history when the army or political parties in the period of national liberation wars controlled large territories without creating state structures on them, exercising power through military or party bodies.
The implementation of power is directly related to the subjects of politics, which are the social carriers of power. When power is conquered, and a certain subject of politics becomes a subject of power, the latter acts as a means of influence of the dominant social group on other associations of people in a given society. The body of such influence is the state. With the help of its organs, the ruling class or the ruling group strengthens its political power, realizes and defends its interests.
Political power, like politics, is inextricably linked with social interests. On the one hand, power itself is a social interest, around which political relations arise, form and function. The acuteness of the struggle for power is due to the fact that the possession of a mechanism for exercising power makes it possible to protect and realize certain socio-economic interests.
On the other hand, social interests have a decisive influence on power. The relations of political power always hide the interests of social groups. “People have always been and always will be stupid victims of fraud and self-deception in politics, until they learn to seek the interests of particular classes for any moral, religious, political, social phrases, statements, promises,” V.I. Lenin (Poln. Sobr. Soch., T. 23, p. 47).
Political power, therefore, acts as a specific aspect of the relations between social groups, it is the realization of the volitional activity of a political subject. The subject-object relations of power are characterized by the fact that the difference between objects and subjects is relative: in some cases, this political group can act as a subject of power, and in others - as an object.
The subjects of political power are a person, a public group, an organization that implements politics or is able to relatively independently participate in political life in accordance with their interests. An important feature of a political subject is its ability to influence the position of others and cause significant changes in political life.
The subjects of political power are unequal. The interests of various social groups exert either determining or indirect influence on the authorities; their role in politics is different. Therefore, among the subjects of political power, it is customary to distinguish between primary and secondary. Primary are characterized by the presence of their own social interests. These are classes, social strata, nations, ethnic and religious, territorial and demographic groups. Secondary reflect the objective interests of the primary and are created by them to implement these interests. These include political parties, the state, public organizations and movement, church.
The interests of those entities that occupy a leading position in the economic system of society constitute the social basis of power.
It is these social groups, communities, individuals that use, set in motion the forms and means of power, and fill them with real content. They are called social carriers of power.
However, the whole history of mankind shows that the ruling class, the ruling political groups or elites, the professional bureaucratic and administrative apparatus, and political leaders possess real political power.
The ruling class personifies the basic material strength of society. He exercises supreme control over the basic resources of society, production and its results. Its economic dominance is guaranteed by the state through political measures and is supplemented by ideological dominance, justifying economic dominance as justified, being fair and even desired.
K. Marx and F. Engels wrote in their work “German Ideology”: “That class, which represents the dominant material power of society, is at the same time its dominant spiritual power.
Dominant thoughts are nothing more than an ideal expression of dominant material relations. "(K. Marx, F. Engels Soch., And 2nd, vol. 3, pp. 45-46).
Thus, occupying key positions in the economy, the ruling class concentrates in itself the main political levers, and then spreads its influence to all spheres of public life. The ruling class is a class dominating in the economic, social, political and spiritual fields, determining social development in accordance with its will and fundamental interests. The main instrument of his domination is political power.
The ruling class is not homogeneous. In its structure, there are always internal groups with conflicting, even opposing interests (traditional small and middle layers, groups representing the military-industrial and fuel and energy complexes). Certain moments of social development in the ruling class may be dominated by the interests of certain internal groups: the 60s of the XX century were characterized by politics " cold war", reflecting the interest of the military-industrial complex (MIC). Therefore, the ruling class to exercise power forms a relatively small group that includes the top of the various layers of this class - an active minority with access to power tools. Most often it is called the ruling elite, sometimes ruling or ruling circles. This leading group includes the economic, military, ideological, bureaucratic elite. One of the main elements of this group is the political elite.
The elite is a group of people with specific features and professional qualities that make them “chosen” in one or another sphere of social life, science, production. The political elite represents a fairly independent, higher, relatively privileged group (s), endowed with important psychological, social and political qualities. It is made up of people holding leadership or dominant positions in society: the country's top political leadership, including the top officials who develop a political ideology. The political elite expresses the will and fundamental interests of the ruling class and, in accordance with them, directly and systematically participates in the adoption and implementation of decisions related to the use of state power or influence on it. Naturally, the ruling political elite formulates and makes political decisions on behalf of the ruling class in the interests of its dominant part, social layer or group.
In the system of power, the political elite performs certain functions: makes decisions on fundamental political issues; defines the goals, guidelines and priorities of the policy; develops an action strategy; consolidates groups of people through compromises, consideration of requirements and coordination of interests of all political forces that support it; leads the most important political structures and organizations; formulates the main ideas that justify and justify its political course.
The ruling elite has direct leadership functions. Everyday activities to implement the decisions taken, all necessary for this event, are carried out by a professional bureaucracy and bureaucracy. She, as an integral element of the ruling elite of modern society, acts as a mediator between the top and the bottom of the pyramid of political power. Historical eras and political systems are changing, but the apparatus of officials, which is responsible for managing everyday affairs, remains a constant condition for the functioning of power.
The bureaucratic vacuum - the absence of an administrative apparatus - is deadly for any political system.
M. Weber emphasized that bureaucracy embodies the most effective and rational ways of managing organizations. Bureaucracy is not only a management system carried out with the help of a separate apparatus, but also a layer of people connected with this system, competent and qualified, performing managerial functions at a professional level. This phenomenon, which is called the bureaucratization of power, is caused not so much by the professional functions of officials, as by the social nature of the bureaucracy itself, which seeks independence, isolation of the rest of society, achievement of a certain autonomy, to pursue the developed political course without taking into account public interests. In practice, it develops its own interests, while claiming the right to make political decisions.
Replacing the public interests of the state and transforming the state goal into the personal goal of an official, into a race for ranks, in career matters, the bureaucracy takes on the right to control what it does not own - power. A well-organized and powerful bureaucracy can impose its will and thereby partially turn into a political elite. That is why the bureaucracy, its place in power and the methods of dealing with it have become an important problem in any modern society.
Social carriers of power, i.e. The sources of practical political activity in the exercise of power can be not only the ruling class, elite and bureaucracy, but also individuals who express the interests of a large social group. Each such person is called a political leader.
The subjects that influence the exercise of power include pressure groups (groups of particular, private interests). Pressure groups are organized associations created by representatives of individual social strata to exert targeted pressure on lawmakers and officials to satisfy their own specific interests.
You can talk about a pressure group only when it and its actions have the ability to systematically influence the authorities. A significant difference between a pressure group and a political party is that the pressure group does not seek to seize power. The pressure group, addressing the wishes of the state body or a specific person, makes it clear at the same time that failure to fulfill its wishes will lead to negative consequences: refusal of support in the elections or financial assistance, loss of position or public position by any influential person. Such groups can be considered the lobby. Lobbyism as a political phenomenon is one of the varieties of pressure groups and appears in the form of various committees, commissions, councils, bureaus created under legislative and governmental organizations. The main objective of the lobby is to establish contacts with politicians and officials to influence their decisions. Lobbyism is distinguished by its backstage organization, annoying persistent striving to achieve certain and not necessarily high goals, commitment to the interests of narrow groups rushing to power. The means and methods of lobbying are diverse: informing and advising on political issues, threats and blackmail, corruption, bribery and bribes, gifts and wishes for speeches at parliamentary hearings, financing election campaigns of candidates, and much more. Lobbying arose in the United States and spread widely in other countries with a traditionally developed system of parliamentarism. Lobby exists in the American Congress, the English Parliament, in the corridors of power of many other countries. Such groups are created not only by representatives of capital, but also by the military, some social movements, and associations of voters. This is one of the attributes of the political life of modern developed countries.
The opposition also exerts influence on the exercise of political power; broadly speaking, the opposition is ordinary political disagreements and disputes on current issues, all direct and indirect manifestations of public discontent with the existing regime. It is also believed that the opposition is a minority, opposing their views and goals of the majority of participants in this political process. At the first stage of the emergence of the opposition, this was how it was: an active minority with its views acted as the opposition. In a narrow sense, the opposition is seen as a political institution: political parties, organizations, and movements that are not participating or removed from power. Political opposition is understood as an organized group of active individuals united by the awareness of the commonality of their political interests, values \u200b\u200band goals, leading the struggle against the dominant subject. Opposition is becoming a public political association, which consciously contrasts itself with the dominant political force on programmatic issues of politics, on the main ideas and goals. The opposition is an organization of like-minded political parties - a party, a faction, a movement capable of waging and leading a struggle for a dominant position in power relations. It is a natural consequence of socio-political contradictions and exists in the presence of favorable political prerequisites for it - at least, the absence of an official ban on its existence.
Traditionally, there are two main types of opposition: non-systemic (destructive) and systemic (constructive). The first group includes those political parties and groups whose action programs completely or partially contradict official political values. Their activities are aimed at weakening and replacing state power. The second group includes parties that recognize the inviolability of the basic political, economic and social principles of society and disagree with the government only in choosing ways and means to achieve common strategic goals. They operate within the framework of the existing political system and do not seek to change its foundations. Giving the opposition forces the opportunity to express their own, different from the official point of view and compete for the votes in the legislative, regional, judicial authorities, in the media with the ruling party is an effective tool against acute social conflicts. The lack of capable opposition leads to an increase in social tension or generates apathy of the population.
First of all, the opposition is the main channel for expressing social discontent, an important factor in future changes and the renewal of society. Criticizing power and government, it has the opportunity to make fundamental concessions and adjust official policies. The presence of an influential opposition limits the abuse of power, prevents the violation or attempted violations of civil, political rights and freedoms of the population. It prevents government deviation from the political center and thus supports social stability. The existence of the opposition testifies to the ongoing struggle for power in society.
The struggle for power reflects the intense, rather conflicting degree of confrontation and opposition of the existing social forces of political parties in matters of attitude to power, to understanding its role, tasks and opportunities. It can be conducted at various scales, as well as using a variety of means, methods, with the involvement of various allies. The struggle for power always ends with the taking of power - the seizure of power with the use of it for certain purposes: a radical reorganization or liquidation of the old power. The seizure of power can be the result of volitional actions, both peaceful and violent.
History has shown that the progressive development of the political system is possible only if there are competing forces. The absence of alternative programs, including the proposed opposition, reduces the need for timely correction of the program of action adopted by the winning majority.
Over the past two decades of the 20th century, new opposition parties and movements have appeared on the political scene: green, environmental, social justice and the like. They are a significant factor in the socio-political life of many countries, have become a kind of catalyst for the renewal of political activity. The main emphasis of these movements is on non-parliamentary methods of political activity, nevertheless, they have an indirect, indirect, but, nevertheless, impact on the exercise of power: their demands and appeals under certain conditions can become political in nature.
Thus, political power is not only one of the core concepts of political science, but also the most important factor in political practice. Through its mediation and influence, the integrity of society is established, social relations in various spheres of life are regulated.
Power is a volitional relationship between two subjects, in which one of them - the subject of power - makes certain demands on the behavior of the other, and the other - in this case it will be a subject subject, or object of power - obeys the orders of the first.
Political power - a volitional relationship between social actors that make up a politically (i.e. state) organized community, the essence of which is to motivate one social entity to conduct others in a direction that is desirable for himself by using his authority, social and legal norms, organized violence , economic, ideological, emotional-psychological and other means of influence.
We can distinguish the types of power:
· according to the area of \u200b\u200bfunctioning, they distinguish between political and non-political power;
· in the main areas of society - economic, state, spiritual, church power;
· by functions - legislative, executive and judicial;
· according to their place in the structure of society and the authorities as a whole, they single out central, regional, local authorities; republican, regional etc.
Political science explores political power. Power in society acts in non-political and political forms.
Political power acts as a real ability and opportunity of an organized class or social group, as well as individuals reflecting their interests, to exercise their will in politics and legal norms.
Political forms of power include state power. Distinguish between political power and state. All state power is political, but not all political power is state.
State power is power exercised with the help of a special apparatus and having the ability to access the means of organized and legislatively enforced violence.
The most important features of state power are its public nature and the presence of a certain territorial structure, which is subject to state sovereignty.
State power performs a number of functions in society: it establishes laws, administers justice, and directs all aspects of the life of society.
Political power can also be non-state: party and military.
The objects of political power are: society as a whole, various spheres of its life (economy, social relations, culture, etc.), various social communities (class, national, territorial, religious, demographic), socio-political formations (parties, organizations), citizens.
The subjects of political power are a person, a public group, an organization that implements politics or is able to relatively independently participate in political life in accordance with their interests.
A social carrier of power can be any political subject.
The ruling class is a class dominating in the economic, social, political and spiritual fields, determining social development in accordance with its will and fundamental interests. The ruling class is not homogeneous.
The ruling class for the exercise of power forms a relatively small group, which includes the top of the various layers of this class - an active minority with access to power tools. Most often it is called the ruling elite, sometimes ruling or dominant circles.
The elite is a group of people with specific features and professional qualities that make them "chosen" in one or another sphere of social life, science, production.
Political elite subdivided into management, which directly owns state authority, and opposition - counter-elite; to the highest one, which makes decisions significant for the whole society and the middle one, which acts as a kind of barometer of public opinion and includes about five percent of the population.
The social carriers of power can be not only the ruling class, elite and bureaucracy, but also individuals who express the interests of a large social group. Each such person is called a political leader.
Pressure groups are organized associations created by representatives of individual social strata to exert targeted pressure on lawmakers and officials to satisfy their own specific interests.
The opposition also exerts influence on the exercise of political power; broadly speaking, the opposition is ordinary political disagreements and disputes on current issues, all direct and indirect manifestations of public discontent with the existing regime.
Traditionally, there are two main types of opposition: non-systemic (destructive) and systemic (constructive). The first group includes those political parties and groups whose action programs completely or partially contradict official political values.
The struggle for power reflects the intense, rather conflicting degree of confrontation and opposition of the existing social forces of political parties in matters of attitude to power, to understanding its role, tasks and opportunities.
Political power is not only one of the core concepts of political science, but also the most important factor in political practice. Through its mediation and influence, the integrity of society is established, social relations in various spheres of life are regulated.
2. Sources and resources of political power
political power social legitimate
Sources of power - objective and subjective conditions that serve as the reason for the heterogeneity of society, social inequality. These include strength, wealth, knowledge, position in society, the presence of organization. The involved sources of power turn into the foundations of power - a set of significant factors in the life and activity of people used by some of them to subordinate other people to their will. The resources of power are the foundations of power used to strengthen or redistribute power in society. The resources of power are secondary to its foundations.
Power resources are:
By generating social structures and institutions, streamlining the activities of people for the realization of a certain will, power destroys social equality.
Due to the fact that the resources of power can neither be exhausted nor monopolized, the process of redistribution of power in society never ends. As a means of achieving various kinds of benefits and advantages, power is always the subject of struggle.
Power resources constitute the potential foundations of power, i.e. those means that can be used by the ruling group to strengthen its power; power resources can be formed as a result of measures to strengthen power.
Sources of power - objective and subjective conditions that serve as the cause of heterogeneity of society, social inequality. These include strength, wealth, knowledge, position in society, the presence of organization.
The resources of power are the foundations of power used to strengthen or redistribute power in society. The resources of power are secondary to its foundations.
Power resources are:
1.Economic (material) - money, real estate, valuables, etc.
2.Social - sympathy, support for social groups.
.Legal - legal norms that are beneficial for certain political actors.
.Administrative-force - the authority of officials in state and non-state organizations and institutions.
.Cultural and information - knowledge and information technology.
.Additional - socio-psychological characteristics of various social groups, beliefs, language, etc.
The logic of conducting participants in power relations is determined by the principles of power:
1)the principle of maintaining power means that the possession of power is a self-evident value (they do not refuse power of their own will);
2)the principle of effectiveness requires from the bearer of power will and other qualities (determination, foresight, balance, justice, responsibility, etc.);
)the principle of community implies the involvement of all participants in power relations in the implementation of the will of the ruling subject;
)the principle of secrecy lies in the invisibility of power, in the fact that individuals often do not realize their involvement in relations of domination, subordination and their contribution to their reproduction.
Power resources constitute the potential foundations of power.
3. Problems of legitimate authority
In political theory, the issue of legitimacy of power is of great importance. Legitimacy means legitimacy, the legitimacy of political domination. The term "legitimacy" originated in France and was originally identified with the term "legality". It was used to denote a legally established authority, in contrast to a forcibly usurped one. At present, legitimacy means the voluntary recognition by the population of the legitimacy of power. M. Weber included two principles in the principle of legitimacy: 1) recognition of the power of rulers; 2) the duty of the governed to obey it. The legitimacy of power means the conviction of people that the government has the right to make decisions that are binding, the willingness of citizens to follow these decisions. The authorities have to resort to coercion. Moreover, the population allows the use of force if other means to implement the decisions taken do not give effect.
M. Weber names three foundations of legitimacy. Firstly, the authority of customs, consecrated by centuries-old traditions, and the habit of submitting to power. This is the traditional domination of the patriarch, tribal leader, feudal lord or monarch over his subjects. Secondly, the authority of an unusual personal gift is charisma, complete devotion and special trust, which is caused by the presence of the qualities of a leader in a person. Finally, the third type of legitimacy of power is domination on the basis of "legality", on the basis of the faith of political participants in justice. existing rules the formation of power, that is, that type of power - rational-legal, which is carried out within the framework of most modern states. In practice, in their pure form, ideal types of legitimacy do not exist. They are mixed, complementing each other. Although in no regime the legitimacy of power is absolute, the more complete it is, the shorter the social distance between different population groups.
The legitimacy of power and politics is indispensable. It extends to the power itself, its goals, means and methods. Neglecting legitimacy to a certain extent can only be overly self-confident power (totalitarian, authoritarian), or a temporary power doomed to withdraw. The power in society must constantly take care of its legitimacy, proceeding from the need to rule with the consent of the people. However, in democratic countries, the ability of the authorities, according to the American political scientist Seymour M. Lipset, to create and maintain in people the belief that existing political institutions are the best, is not unlimited. In a socially differentiated society there are social groups that do not share the political course of the government and do not accept it in detail or in general. Confidence in power is not unlimited, it is given on credit, if the loan is not paid, the power becomes bankrupt. One of the serious political issues modernity has become a question about the role of information in politics. There are fears that informatization of society strengthens authoritarian tendencies and even leads to dictatorship. The ability to obtain accurate information about each citizen and manipulate the masses of people increases extremely when using computer networks. The ruling circles know everything they need, and everyone else knows nothing.
Development trends in the field of information allow political scientists to assume that the political power acquired by the majority through the concentration of information will not be exercised directly. Rather, this process will go through strengthening the executive branch while reducing the real power of official politicians and elected representatives, that is, by reducing the role of representative power. The ruling elite thus formed may turn out to be a kind of "infocracy." The source of power of an infocracy will not be any merit to the people or society, but only great opportunities to use information.
Thus, it becomes possible the emergence of another type of power - information. The status of the information power, its functions depend on the political regime in the country. Information power cannot and should not be the prerogative, the exclusive right of state bodies, but can be represented by individuals, enterprises, domestic and international public associations, and local governments. Measures against the monopolization of information sources, as well as against abuse in the field of information, are established by the legislation of the country.
Legitimacy means legitimacy, the legitimacy of political domination. The term "legitimacy" originated in France and was originally identified with the term "legality". It was used to designate a legally established authority, in contrast to a forcibly usurped one. At present, legitimacy means the voluntary recognition by the population of the legitimacy of power.
In principle, there are two provisions of legitimacy: 1) recognition of the power of rulers; 2) the duty of the governed to obey it.
There are three foundations of legitimacy. First, the authority of customs. Secondly, the authority of an unusual personal gift. The third type of legitimacy of power is dominance on the basis of the "legality" of the existing rules for the formation of power.
The legitimacy of power and politics is indispensable. It extends to the power itself, its goals, means and methods.
The political power acquired by the majority through the concentration of information will not be exercised directly.
Literature
1.Melnik V.A. Political science: Textbook for universities 4th ed., Rev. and add. - Minsk, 2002.
2.Political Science: Lecture Course / Ed. M.A. Slemneva. - Vitebsk, 2003.
.Political Science: Textbook / ed. S.V. Reshetnikova. Minsk, 2004.
.Reshetnikov S.V. et al. Political science: lecture course. Minsk, 2005.
.Kapustin B.G. On the Concept of Political Violence / Political Studies, No. 6, 2003.
.Melnik V.A. Political science: basic concepts and logical schemes: A manual. Minsk, 2003.
.Ekadumova I.I. Political science: answers to exam questions. Minsk, 2007.
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